The term Veda means “wisdom”. There four Vedas, namely:
1) Rg Veda,
2) Yajur Veda,
3) Sama Veda, and
4) Atharva Veda.
The Rg Veda (sometimes spelt as Rik or Rig Veda) is, philosophically speaking, the most important of all the Vedas. Hence, any attempt to understand Indian philosophy should first of all seek to understand the basics of the Rg Veda.
The Rg Veda is composed of 1, 017 hymns, which are divided into ten books. Of these, Books I and X contain the philosophical parts. In the attempt to grasp the philosophical parts of the Rg Veda, these notes follow closely Sarvepalli’s outline, namely:
1) Hymns to God-Polytheism,
2) Monotheism and Monistic Tendencies,
3) the Cosmic Law, Right, Truth-Rta,
4) Ethical Principles and Social Practices,
5) The Hereafter, and
6) Skepticism and Ridicule of the Gods.
Hymns to God-Polytheism
Three strata of development are found in the thought of the hymns of the Rg Veda, namely:
1) Naturalistic Polytheism,
2) Monotheism, and
3) Monism.
Naturalism and anthropomorphism (the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities) constitute the first stage of the Vedic thought. Here, polytheism is emphasized wherein gods are named and worshipped. Some of the gods mentioned in the Rg Veda are the following:
Indra, the deity of the thunderstorm. Indra is the most prominent of the gods in the Rg Veda. He is most frequently praised for his power and heroism;
Agni, the god of fire;
Visnu, the all-pervader god;
Bhrhaspati, the god of prayer;
Prthivi, the earth god;
Dyaus, the heaven god;
Surya, the sun-god;
Usas, the dawn god;
Vata, the wind god; and
Vak, the voice or speech personified. Vak is understood as the means of communication between man and god.
Monotheism and Monistic Tendencies
Monotheism and monism are the second and third stages of the development of the thought of the Rg Veda.
The crowding of the gods and goddesses in the Vedic polytheism died out and paved the way for monotheism. Thus, monotheism displaced polytheism. However, monotheism failed to satisfy the late Vedic thinkers; thus, monotheism eventually gave way to philosophical monism, the doctrine of the impersonal, unknowable One.
Cosmic Law or Order, Right, Truth-Rta
Despite the diversity of reality, that is, gods and goddesses, there exists unity among them. The unity of realities depicted in monism was made possible by the recognition of Rta, the order of the world. Rta then represents the law, unity, or rightness underlying the orderliness of the universe. In one of the hymns to Indra, Rta is referred to as Eternal Law. For this reason, Rta is understood as one of the attributes of the One.
Ethical Principles and Social Practices
From the conception of Rta as the Eternal Law of the universe or the law of order of the world, there follows the conception of Rta as the standard of morality. Hence, Rta can also be understood as the principle of human conduct, wherein love of fellowmen, kindness to all, and obedience to our duties to the gods and men are required.
The Hereafter
The Vedic hymns also talk about immortality, wherein good men went to heaven or the world of Visnu. Since the notion of Samsara, that is, reincarnation, is understood as the process of the purification of the soul, then the idea of “hell”, which the Christians view as a place where eternal fire dwells, seems inconceivable.
Skepticism and Ridicule of the Gods
Some of the later Vedic Indians experienced not only the wonder which is so characteristic of the nature of philosophy, but also the doubt and skepticism concerning their previously accepted beliefs. Interestingly, this skepticism paves the way for philosophic thoughts.
The doubt, which some of the Vedic Indians had at this stage, took the form of ridicule of the accepted beliefs and of their gods. The Vedic hymn at this point questioned even the very existence of the highest god.
It is interesting to note that these criticisms were coming from within and were not influenced by outside forces. Hence, these criticisms are a form of a critique of their own beliefs and practices. This is indeed a characteristic of a critical thought, of philosophical thought.
Summary
A very striking feature of the Rg Veda is the transition from polytheism to monotheism, and then to philosophical monism. This monistic stage was made possible through the recognition of Rta, the World Order or the Eternal Law. Then Rta as the principle of world order was viewed as the principle of human conduct, that is, from the idea of a cosmic law, Rta is understood as the law that governs man and society.
Another striking feature of the Rg Veda is the recognition of the practical import of good acts. Good men will go to heaven; hence, they will become immortal. This is personal immortality for the Vedic Indians.
Lastly, on the idea of skepticism. The later Vedic Indians doubted the existence of the manifolds of gods and goddesses. Even the highest god did not escape skepticism. This skepticism often took the form of ridicule of the accepted beliefs and of the gods. And, interestingly, what spurred this transition is THINKING, that is, philosophic thought.