The Upanishads are the concluding parts of the Vedas. They are also the bases of Vedanta philosophy. And as is well known, Vedanta philosophy is the zenith of Indian philosophy.
The term Upanishad is derived from the words upa meaning “near”, ni meaning “down”, and sad meaning “to sit”. Thus, the term Upanishad means “to sit down near”. In the Vedic sense, the term Upanishads involves the idea of a group of students sitting near the teacher to learn from him the truth. And for the Vedic Indians, this is the way to destroying ignorance.
There are over 200 Upanishads. However, the traditional number is 108 of which the principal Upanishads are 10. But an additional 3 are also important. Hence, in these notes, 9 Upanishads will be explored, namely:
1) Isa Upanishad,
2) Kena Upanishad,
3) Katha Upanishad,
4) Prasna Upanishad,
5) Mundaka Upanishad,
6) Mandukya Upanishad,
7) Taittiriya Upanishad,
8) Aitareya Upanishad, and
9) Chandogya Upanishad,
It is important to note that just as the Vedic hymns, the authors of the Upanishads are not known.
Isa Upanishad
This is the smallest of the Upanishads. This Upanishad speaks about the paradoxical nature of the Atman. It must be noted that the common theme in the Upanishad is the doctrine of Atman and Brahman.
For example, Verses 5 and 6 read:
As we can see, the Isa Upanishad gives us the idea that Atman is that mysterious WHOLE. And this mysterious WHOLE could mean the entirety of the universe.
Kena Upanishad
This Upanishad asks the question “By whom?”, that is, who is the real power behind the functions of the universe, external in nature and internal in man? The Kena Upanishad answers: the Atman, the single unitary reality, the inspirer of the functions of both man and the universe.
The Kena Upanishad is famous for its saying: “It is not understood by those who (say they) understand It. It is understood by those who (say they) understand It not.” Hence, for the Vedic Indians, the Absolute Reality (that is, Atman) can never be known.
The paradox of the inscrutability of the Atman is captured in Verses 3 and 4, which read:
Katha Upanishad
According to Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the Katha Upanishad is perhaps the most philosophical. In fact, this Upanishad deals with the question of the immortality of the self; the theory of the superiority of the good (sreyas) over the pleasant (preyas); the view that the Atman cannot be known by the senses, reason, or much learning, but only by intuition or direct realization; and the doctrine of the body as the chariot of the self.
Prasna Upanishad
This Upanishad has its origin in the question which philosophers ask of the sage Pippalada. His answers evolve in the end quite a systematic philosophy on creation, human personality, and the metaphysical principle in man. Some of the verses are quoted below:
“The Supreme Self, the ultimate basis of the manifold world and of the individual.”
Verse 7: As birds resort to a tree for a resting place, even so, O friend, it is to the supreme Self (Atman) that everything here resorts.
Verse 8: Earth and the elements of earth, water and the elements of water, heat and the elements of heat, wind and the elements of wind, space and the elements of space, sight and what can be seen, hearing and what can be heard, smell and what can be smelled, taste and what can be tasted, skin and what can be touched, speech and what can be spoken, the hands and what can be taken, the organ of generation and what can be enjoyed, the anus and what can be excreted, the feet and what can be walked, mind (manas) and what can be perceived, intellect (buddhi) what can be conceived, egoism (ahamkara) and what can be connected with “me”, thought (citta) and what can be thought, brilliance and what can be illumined, life-breath and what can be supported.
Verse 9: Truly, this seer, toucher, hearer, smeller, taster, thinker, conceiver, doer, the conscious self (vijnanatman), the personꟷhis resort is in the supreme imperishable Self (Atman).
Mundaka Upanishad
According to Sarvepalli, the Mundaka Upanishad is the most poetical of all the Upanishads. The philosophy expressed here is more eclectic, and generally speaking, the subject-matter is that which is common to all the Upanishads. But special mention is due to the theory of two kinds of knowledge, a higher (para) and a lower (apara). Brahman is also mentioned here.
Two Kinds of Knowledge
Verse 4: There are two knowledge to be known, as indeed the knowers of Brahman and wont to say: a higher (para) and also a lower (apara).
Verse 5: Of these, the lower are the Rg Veda, the Yajur Veda, the Sama Veda, the Atharva Veda. Now, the higher is that whereby that Imperishable is apprehended.
Verse 6: That which is invisible, ungraspable, without family, without caste. Without sight or hearing is It, without hand or foot,
Eternal, all-pervading, omnipresent, exceedingly subtle;
That is the Imperishable, which the wise perceive as the source of beings.
The All-inclusive Brahman
Verse 1: Manifest, [yet] hidden; called “Moving-in-secret”,
The great abode! Therein is placed that
Which moves and breaths and winks.
What that is, known as Being and Non-being,
As the object of desire, higher than understanding,
As what is the best of creatures!
Verse 2: That whish is flaming, which is subtler than the subtle,
On which the worlds are set, and their inhabitants
That which is Imperishable Brahman.
It is life, and It is speech and mind.
That is the real. It is immortal.
It is [a mark] to be penetrated. Penetrate It, my friend.
Mandukya Upanishad
Named for the sage-teacher Mandukya, this Upanishad has given to Indian thought the famous theory of the four states of consciousness, namely, waking, dreaming, profound sleep, and the fourth state (turiya) which is alone is real.
Taittiriya Upanishad
This Upanishad speaks about the ethical teachings of the time. It also speaks about the famous doctrine of the “Five Sheaths” of the self, that is, food, breath, mind, intellect, and bliss.
The Five-foldness of the World and of the Individual
Aitareya Upanishad
It is in this Upanishad that the idea of life and death is brought out more clearly. But this Upanishad is famous for its doctrine of the Atman as intellect.
The Creation
Verse 1: In the beginning Atman (Self), verily one, was here – no other winking thing whatever. He brought Himself: “Let me now create the worlds.”
Verse 2: He created these worlds: water, light rays, death, the waters…
Verse 3: He bethought Himself: “Here now are worlds. Let me now create world-guardians.” Right from the waters he drew forth and shaped a person…
The Universal Self
Verse 1: [Question:] Who is this one?
[Answer:] We worship him as the Self.
[Question:] Which one is the Self?
[Answer:] He whereby one sees, or whereby one hears, or whereby one smells odors, or whereby one discriminates the sweet and the unsweet; Verse 2: that which is heart and mind – that is, consciousness, perception, discrimination, intelligence, wisdom, insight, steadfastness, thought, thoughtfulness, impulse, memory, conception, purpose, life, desire, will.
All these, indeed, are appellations of intelligence (prajnana).
Verse 3: …all this is guided by intelligence, is based on intelligence. The world is guided by intelligence. The basis is intelligence. Brahman is intelligence.
Chandogya Upanishad
Chandogya Upanishad is one of the oldest and best known of the Upanishads. It contains many teachings, but the most popular passage in the whole work is the story of Satyakama Jabala and his truthful mother, in which it is demonstrated that the status of a brahmin is determined by character rather than by birth. The central teaching of this Upanishad, associated with the philosopher Aruni, is the basic doctrine of the identity of the Atman, the psychical doctrine within, and the Brahman, the universal principle of nature. As we can see, therefore, Brahman is Atman, and Atman is Brahman. This doctrine is expressed in the famous saying: “Tat tvam asi (That art thou or You are that)”.
The Story of Jabala, a Brahmin
Verse 1: Once upon a time, Satyakama Jabala addressed his mother Jabala: “Madam! I desire to live a student of sacred knowledge. Of what family, pray, am I?”
Verse 2: The she said to him: “I do not know this, my dearꟷof what family you are. In my youth, when I went about a great deal serving as a maid, I got you. So I do not know of what family you are. However, I am Jabala by name; you are Satyakama by name. So you speak of yourself as Satyakama Jabala.”
Verse 3: Then he went to Haridrumata Gautama, and said: “I will live the life of a student of sacred knowledge. I will become a pupil of you, Sir.”
Verse 4: To him he then said: “Of what family, pray, are you, my dear? Then he said: ‘I do no know, Sir, of what family I am. I asked my mother. She answered me: “In my youth, when I went about a great deal serving as a maid, I got you. So I do not know of what family you are. However, I am Jabala by name; you are Satyakama by name.’ So I am Satyakama Jabala, Sir.”
Verse 5: To him he said: “A non-brahmin would not be able to explain thus. Bring the fuel, my dear. I will receive you as a pupil. You have not deviated from the truth.”
What we can draw from the verses above is the insight that “humility” or “acceptance of one’s ignorance” is a requisite in the quest for truth.
The Universal Self
Verse 1: “Aupamanyava, whom do you reverence as the Atman?” The heaven, indeed, sir, O King,” said he. “The Universal Atman is, verily, that brightly shining one which you reverence as the Atman….”
Verse 2: “…That, however, is only the head of the Atman,” said he….
Verse 1: Then he said to Satyayajna Paulusi: “Pracinayogya! Whom do you reverence as the Atman?” “The sun, sir, O King,” said he. “The Universal Atman is, verily, that manifold one which you reverence as the Atman…. That, however, is only the eye of the Atman,” said he.
Verse 1: Then he said to Indradyumma Bhallaveya: “Vaiyaghrapadya! Whom do you reverence as the Atman?” “The wind indeed, sir, O King,” said he. “The Universal Atman is, verily, that which possesses various paths, which you reverence as the Atman….”
Verse 2: “….That, however, is only the breath of the Atman,” said he….
Verse 1: Then he said to Jana: “Sarkaraksya! Whom do you reverence as the Atman?” “Water indeed, sir, O King,” said he. “The Universal Atman is, verily, that wealth, which you reverence as the Atman….”
Verse 2: ““….That, however, is only the bladder of the Atman,” said he….
Then he said to them: “Verily, indeed, you here eat food, knowing this Universal Atman as if something separates. He, however, who reverence this Universal Atman that is the measure of the span – thus [yet], is to be measured by thinking of oneself – he eats food in all worlds, in all beings, in all selves.
As we can see, based on the verses above, the Atman is that incomprehensible WHOLE, the entirety of the universe.
The Unitary World-Self, the Immanent Reality of all Things and of Man
Verse 1: “As the bees, my dear, prepare honey by collecting the essences of different trees and reducing the essence to a unity, [Verse 2] as they are not able to discriminate ‘I am the essence of this tree,’ ‘I am the essence of that tree’ ꟷ even so indeed, my dear, all creatures here, though they reached Being, know not ‘We have reached Being’.”
Verse 3: “Whatever they are in this world, whether tiger, or lion, or wolf, or boar, or worm, or gnat, or mosquito, that they become.”
Verse 4: “That which is the finest essence – this whole world has that as its self. That is Reality. That is Atman. Tat tvam asi (That art thou or You are that), Svetaketu….”
Verse 1: “These rivers, my dear, flow the eastern toward the east, the western toward the west. They go out form the ocean to the ocean. They become the ocean itself. As there they know no-‘I am this one’ [Verse 2] even so, indeed, my dear, all creatures here, though they are in this world, whether tiger, or lion, or wolf, or boar, or worm, or gnat, or mosquito, that they become.”
Verse 3: “That which is the finest essence – this whole world has that as its self. That is Reality. That is Atman. Tat tvam asi (That art thou or You are that), Svetaketu….”
Verse 1: “Bring hither a fig tree from there.”
“Here it is, Sir.”
“Divide it.”
“It is divided, Sir.”
“What do you see there?”
“These rather fine seeds, Sir.”
“Of these, please divide one.”
“It is divided, Sir.”
“What do you see there?”
“Nothing at all, Sir.”
Verse 2: Then he said to him: “Verily, my dear, that finest essence which you do not perceive – verily, my dear, from that finest essence this Nyagrodha (sacred fig) tree thus arises.
Verse 3: “Believe me, my dear,” said he, “that which is the finest essence – this whole world has that as itself. That is Reality. Tat tvam asi (You are that), Svetaketu.
Verse 1: “Place this salt in the water. In the morning come unto me.” Then he did so. Then he said to him: “That salt you placed in water last evening – please bring it here.” Then he grasped for it, but did not find it, as it was completely dissolved.
Verse 2: “Please take a sip of it from this end,” said he. “How is it?”
“Salt.”
“Take a sip form that end,” said he. “How is it?”
“Salt.”
“Set it aside, then come unto me.”
He did so, saying, “It is always the same.”
Then he said to him: “Verily, indeed, my dear, you do not perceive Being here. Verily, indeed, it is here.
Verse 3: “That which is the finest essence – this whole world has that as its self. That is Reality. Tat tvam asi (You are that), Svetaketu….”