Year: 2023

Plotinus was a renowned ancient Greek philosopher who lived in the 3rd century AD. He is considered to be one of the most influential figures in the development of Neoplatonism, a philosophical school that drew on the ideas of Plato and Aristotle to create a new system of thought.

Life

Plotinus was born in Egypt around 204 AD, and he spent most of his life in Rome. He was a student of Ammonius Saccas, a philosopher who taught a system of thought that drew on the ideas of Plato and Aristotle. After studying with Ammonius for eleven years, Plotinus left Rome to travel and study philosophy in Egypt and Persia.

Upon his return to Rome, Plotinus began teaching and writing about his philosophical ideas. He attracted a group of followers, known as the Neoplatonists, who were inspired by his teachings and helped to spread his ideas throughout the Roman Empire. Despite his fame and influence, Plotinus was known for his modesty and his dedication to philosophical inquiry.

Works

Plotinus was a prolific writer, and he left behind a number of works that are still studied and debated by philosophers today. His most famous work is the Enneads, a collection of six groups of nine treatises that cover a wide range of philosophical topics. The Enneads are written in a highly complex and nuanced style, and they explore a variety of philosophical concepts, including the nature of the soul, the relationship between the individual and the divine, and the role of philosophy in human life.

One of the key concepts in Plotinus’s philosophy is the idea of the One, which he believed to be the ultimate source of all existence. The One is an ineffable and indescribable concept that transcends all human understanding, and Plotinus believed that the highest goal of human life was to achieve union with the One.

In addition to his work on the One, Plotinus also wrote extensively about the nature of the soul. He believed that the soul was eternal and divine, and that it was capable of transcending the limitations of the physical world. He also believed that the soul had the potential to achieve union with the divine, and that this was the ultimate goal of human existence.

Another important concept in Plotinus’s philosophy is the idea of emanation, which refers to the process by which the One gives rise to the physical world. According to Plotinus, the One emanates the intellect, which in turn emanates the soul, which then gives rise to the physical world. This process of emanation is seen as a downward movement from the divine to the material, and it is viewed as a necessary step in the process of achieving union with the One.

Legacy

Plotinus’s ideas had a profound influence on the development of Western philosophy. His emphasis on the transcendence of the One and the divinity of the soul inspired later thinkers like Augustine and Aquinas, and his ideas about the nature of reality and the relationship between the individual and the divine continue to be studied and debated by philosophers today.

In addition to his influence on Western philosophy, Plotinus’s ideas also had a significant impact on other intellectual and artistic movements. His emphasis on the transcendent and the divine inspired early Christian mystics, and his ideas about the relationship between the individual and the divine were a major influence on the Renaissance idea of the individual as a unique and divine creation.

Overall, Plotinus’s life and works continue to be studied and celebrated today, and his ideas have left an indelible mark on the development of Western thought. His philosophy remains a powerful reminder of the human capacity for transcendence and the enduring power of the search for truth and meaning.

Alexander of Aphrodisias was a prominent ancient Greek philosopher who lived in the 2nd century AD. He was a student of Aristotelian philosophy and is considered one of the most important commentators on Aristotle’s works. Alexander of Aphrodisias was known for his contributions to a variety of philosophical fields, including metaphysics, ethics, and epistemology.

Metaphysics

Alexander of Aphrodisias is perhaps best known for his work in the field of metaphysics. He was a strong proponent of Aristotelian metaphysics, which emphasizes the importance of causation and teleology. Alexander argued that everything in the natural world could be explained in terms of causation, and that there were four types of causes: material cause, formal cause, efficient cause, and final cause.

In addition to his work on causation, Alexander also contributed to the development of Aristotelian concepts like substance, essence, and potentiality. He argued that substances were composed of matter and form, and that the essence of a substance was the set of properties that made it what it was. He also believed that substances had the potential to change over time, and that this potentiality was an essential aspect of their nature.

Ethics

Alexander of Aphrodisias also made important contributions to the field of ethics. He was a proponent of virtue ethics, which emphasizes the importance of developing virtuous character traits in order to live a good life. Alexander argued that the goal of ethics was to achieve eudaimonia, which he defined as a state of flourishing or well-being.

In order to achieve eudaimonia, Alexander believed that individuals needed to develop virtues like courage, wisdom, and justice. He also argued that the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain were not sufficient for achieving eudaimonia, and that a more comprehensive approach to ethics was required.

Epistemology

Alexander of Aphrodisias was also interested in epistemology, which is the study of knowledge and belief. He argued that knowledge was based on perception, and that perception was a reliable source of knowledge about the natural world. He also believed that reason played an important role in the acquisition of knowledge, and that reason was necessary for drawing conclusions based on perception.

In addition to his work on perception and reason, Alexander also contributed to the development of theories about knowledge and belief. He argued that knowledge required a high degree of certainty, and that beliefs could only be considered knowledge if they were true, justified, and believed with conviction.

Legacy

Alexander of Aphrodisias was a highly influential philosopher in his own time, and his ideas continue to be studied and debated by philosophers today. He was a prominent commentator on Aristotle’s works, and his commentaries helped to preserve and disseminate Aristotelian philosophy during a time when it was under threat from competing philosophical schools.

In addition to his work on Aristotle, Alexander also made significant contributions to a variety of philosophical fields, including metaphysics, ethics, and epistemology. His work on causation, substance, and potentiality helped to shape the development of Aristotelian metaphysics, while his ideas about virtue ethics and eudaimonia continue to influence contemporary ethical theory.

Overall, Alexander of Aphrodisias was an important figure in the history of philosophy, and his ideas continue to be relevant and influential today. His contributions to the fields of metaphysics, ethics, and epistemology have helped to shape the development of Western philosophy, and his legacy continues to inspire and challenge philosophers to this day.

Aristotelianism is a philosophical system that is based on the ideas of the ancient Greek philosopher, Aristotle. Aristotle was a student of Plato, but he developed his own distinct philosophical system that emphasized the importance of observation and experience. Aristotelianism has had a significant impact on the development of Western thought, and it continues to be an influential philosophy today.

One of the key elements of Aristotelianism is the idea of causation. Aristotle believed that everything in the natural world could be explained in terms of causation. He identified four types of causation: material cause, formal cause, efficient cause, and final cause. The material cause is the substance or matter that makes up an object, while the formal cause is the shape or form that gives the object its specific identity. The efficient cause is the force or agent that brings about a change, and the final cause is the ultimate purpose or goal of the object.

Aristotle also believed in the concept of teleology, which suggests that everything in the natural world has a purpose or goal. This idea is closely linked to the final cause, as it implies that the natural world is inherently directed towards some end or purpose. This view of the natural world contrasts with the mechanistic view that emerged during the scientific revolution, which saw the natural world as a collection of unconnected parts that were governed by laws of motion.

Another important aspect of Aristotelianism is the idea of the hierarchy of being. Aristotle believed that everything in the natural world could be organized into a hierarchy, with the lowest forms of life at the bottom and the highest forms at the top. At the bottom of the hierarchy were inanimate objects, followed by plants, animals, and finally humans. This hierarchy was based on the idea that each level of being had its own unique characteristics and abilities.

Aristotelianism also placed a great emphasis on the importance of ethics and morality. Aristotle believed that the ultimate goal of human life was to achieve eudaimonia, which is often translated as happiness or flourishing. Eudaimonia was seen as the ultimate goal because it encompassed all the other goals that people might have, such as wealth, power, or pleasure. Aristotle believed that eudaimonia could be achieved by living a life that was virtuous and in accordance with reason.

One of the most important virtues in Aristotelianism is phronesis, which is often translated as practical wisdom. This virtue involves the ability to make good decisions and to act in accordance with what is morally right. Aristotle believed that phronesis was a crucial aspect of ethical behavior, as it allowed people to navigate the complex social and moral issues that arise in everyday life.

Aristotelianism also placed a great emphasis on the importance of logic and reason. Aristotle developed a system of logical deduction that is still used in philosophy and mathematics today. His system was based on the idea that certain statements or propositions could be deduced from other statements or propositions using a set of logical rules. This system was seen as a way to achieve certainty and knowledge, as it allowed people to deduce true statements from other true statements.

Aristotelianism has had a significant impact on the development of Western thought, and it has influenced many different fields of study, including philosophy, science, and politics. One of the most significant areas of influence has been in the field of metaphysics. Aristotle’s ideas about causation and teleology have had a lasting impact on the way that people think about the natural world and its purpose.

Middle Platonism was a philosophical movement that emerged in the 1st century BC and lasted until the 3rd century AD. It was a period of transition between the early Platonic philosophy of Plato and the later Neoplatonic philosophy of Plotinus. Middle Platonism was characterized by a renewed interest in the philosophy of Plato, combined with the influence of other philosophical schools, particularly Stoicism and Aristotelianism.

One of the key figures of Middle Platonism was Plutarch, a Greek philosopher and historian who lived in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. Plutarch was heavily influenced by the philosophy of Plato, but also incorporated elements of other philosophical schools, particularly Stoicism. He believed that the ultimate goal of philosophy was to achieve a state of moral perfection, which could be attained through the practice of virtue and the cultivation of wisdom.

Another important figure of Middle Platonism was Numenius of Apamea, a Syrian philosopher who lived in the 2nd century AD. Numenius was influenced by the philosophy of Plato, but also incorporated elements of Pythagoreanism and Aristotelianism. He believed that there was a transcendent reality beyond the physical world, which could only be accessed through philosophical inquiry and contemplation.

Middle Platonism also saw the emergence of the concept of the “demiurge,” a divine being who was believed to be responsible for the creation of the world. The demiurge was seen as a mediator between the ultimate reality and the physical world, and was believed to play a crucial role in the universe’s ongoing process of creation and maintenance.

One of the main contributions of Middle Platonism was the development of the concept of the “logos.” The term “logos” had been used by Greek philosophers for centuries to refer to reason, logic, and speech. In Middle Platonism, however, the concept of the logos took on a more metaphysical and cosmological significance. The logos was seen as an intermediary between the transcendent realm of ultimate reality and the physical world. It was believed to be the source of order and harmony in the universe, and was seen as a divine principle that permeated all of existence.

Middle Platonism also saw the emergence of a renewed interest in the philosophy of Aristotle. While Aristotle had been largely ignored by earlier Platonists, Middle Platonists like Plutarch and Albinus (a Greek philosopher who lived in the 2nd century AD) saw value in his work and incorporated elements of Aristotelianism into their own philosophy. This led to a more nuanced understanding of the relationship between Plato and Aristotle, and paved the way for the later development of Neoplatonism.

Overall, Middle Platonism represented an important period of development and transition in the history of Platonic philosophy. It saw the emergence of new concepts and ideas, particularly the concept of the logos, and paved the way for the later development of Neoplatonism. Middle Platonism also reflected the broader intellectual and cultural trends of its time, with its incorporation of elements of other philosophical schools like Stoicism and Aristotelianism.

Galen was a prominent philosopher, physician, and scientist who lived during the second century AD. He was born in Pergamum, which is now known as Bergama, Turkey, and was heavily influenced by the teachings of Aristotle and Hippocrates. Galen’s philosophy was based on his belief in the unity of the body and the mind, the importance of empirical observation, and the idea that the human body was a microcosm of the universe.

One of Galen’s key philosophical ideas was the concept of the “four elements.” Galen believed that everything in the universe was composed of four elements: earth, air, fire, and water. These elements were not only physical substances but also represented different qualities and characteristics. For example, earth was associated with heaviness and stability, while air was associated with lightness and mobility. Fire was associated with heat and energy, while water was associated with fluidity and change.

According to Galen, the human body was also composed of these four elements, and the balance between them was essential for maintaining health. He believed that illness was caused by an imbalance in the four elements, and that restoring this balance was the key to treating disease. This idea was also related to his belief in the importance of the “humors,” which were bodily fluids that were believed to correspond to the four elements. These humors were blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile, and an imbalance in any of them could lead to illness.

Galen was also a strong believer in the power of observation and empirical evidence. He believed that it was important to closely observe the natural world and to use this knowledge to better understand the workings of the human body. Galen was particularly interested in anatomy and physiology, and he spent much of his life dissecting animals and studying their organs and systems. He believed that this knowledge could be used to develop new treatments and cures for disease.

Another important aspect of Galen’s philosophy was his belief in the unity of the body and the mind. He believed that the mind and body were closely interconnected and that both were essential for good health. Galen believed that emotions and thoughts could have a powerful impact on the body, and that mental illnesses were just as real and important as physical ones. He also believed that the body could be trained and strengthened through exercise, and that this could have a positive impact on mental health as well.

Galen’s philosophy also emphasized the idea that the human body was a microcosm of the universe. He believed that the body was made up of the same four elements that composed the universe, and that understanding the human body was a key to understanding the universe as a whole. This idea was related to his belief in the interconnectedness of all things, and he believed that the study of the natural world was essential for understanding the larger cosmic order.

In terms of medicine, Galen was one of the most influential physicians of his time. He believed in the importance of treating the whole person, not just the symptoms of a disease. He also emphasized the importance of preventive medicine, and believed that good health was not just the absence of disease but a state of balance and harmony in the body. Galen’s approach to medicine was based on his philosophical beliefs, and he saw medicine as a way to understand the workings of the human body and to restore balance and harmony.

Overall, Galen’s philosophy was based on the interconnectedness of all things, the importance of observation and empirical evidence, and the unity of the body and the mind. His beliefs had a profound impact on both philosophy and medicine, and his ideas continue to influence our understanding of the human body and the natural world today.

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE) was a Roman statesman, philosopher, orator, and writer. Cicero played a crucial role in the Roman Republic and is considered one of the greatest orators in history. He was also a prolific writer on a wide range of topics, including politics, philosophy, law, and ethics.

One of Cicero’s most important contributions to philosophy was his synthesis of the Greek and Roman philosophical traditions. He was heavily influenced by the Greek Stoics and the Roman jurists, and sought to bridge the gap between these two schools of thought. Cicero believed that philosophy could help individuals live a better life and contribute to the greater good of society.

Cicero’s philosophy was based on the idea that individuals should live in accordance with reason and virtue. He believed that individuals could use reason to guide their actions and decisions, and that they should cultivate virtues such as wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance. He saw virtue as essential for living a happy and fulfilling life, and believed that individuals could achieve a state of inner peace and tranquility by cultivating virtue.

Another important theme in Cicero’s philosophy was the idea of natural law. He believed that there were certain universal principles of justice that were inherent in nature, and that these principles could be discovered through reason. He saw natural law as a way of reconciling the interests of individuals with the interests of society, and believed that individuals had a duty to contribute to the greater good of society.

Cicero was also a staunch defender of the Roman Republic and the principles of democracy. He believed in the importance of constitutional government, and saw the rule of law as essential for protecting the rights and freedoms of individuals. He saw the Republic as a system of government that was based on the principles of liberty, equality, and justice, and believed that these principles were essential for the well-being of society.

Cicero was also known for his writings on rhetoric and oratory. He believed that the art of persuasion was essential for achieving success in politics and public life, and saw oratory as a tool for inspiring and motivating others. He believed that effective oratory required both skill and sincerity, and that speakers should appeal to both the emotions and the reason of their audience.

One of Cicero’s most famous works is “De Officiis” (On Duties), a treatise on ethics and moral duty. In this work, Cicero argues that individuals have a duty to act in accordance with moral principles, and that they should strive to contribute to the greater good of society. He emphasizes the importance of honesty, integrity, and responsibility, and sees these virtues as essential for living a virtuous life.

Another important work by Cicero is “On the Nature of the Gods,” a dialogue in which different characters discuss their beliefs about the gods and the nature of divinity. In this work, Cicero explores the limits of human knowledge and the role of religion in human life. He emphasizes the importance of reason and rationality in the search for truth, and sees religion as a way of understanding the mysteries of the universe.

Cicero’s contributions to philosophy were not only theoretical but also practical. He used his philosophical principles to guide his actions in public life, and was a strong advocate for democracy and constitutional government. He was known for his eloquent speeches and his ability to inspire and motivate others, and his writings continue to influence philosophers and politicians to this day.

In conclusion, Cicero’s philosophy was characterized by a commitment to reason, virtue, natural law, and the principles of democracy. He saw philosophy as a way of improving the human condition and contributing to the greater good of society.

Marcus Aurelius was a Roman emperor who ruled from 161 to 180 CE, and was also known for his philosophical writings, particularly his book “Meditations.” Marcus Aurelius’ philosophy was heavily influenced by Stoicism, and he believed in the importance of self-control, rationality, and living in accordance with nature.

One of the central themes of Marcus Aurelius’ philosophy was the idea that individuals should focus on the things that are within their control, rather than worrying about things that are beyond their control. He believed that individuals should focus on their own thoughts and actions, and not be consumed by external events or circumstances. This idea is reflected in his famous quote, “You have power over your mind – not outside events. Realize this, and you will find strength.”

Marcus Aurelius also believed in the importance of rationality and logic. He believed that individuals should use reason to guide their actions and decisions, and that they should be guided by logic rather than by emotion. He saw reason as a tool for achieving a state of inner peace and tranquility, and believed that individuals could use reason to overcome their fears and anxieties.

Another important theme in Marcus Aurelius’ philosophy was the idea of living in accordance with nature. He believed that individuals should strive to live in harmony with the natural world, and that they should avoid excess and extravagance. He saw nature as a source of wisdom and guidance, and believed that individuals could learn important lessons about life and morality by observing the natural world.

Marcus Aurelius also emphasized the importance of self-control and self-discipline. He believed that individuals should be able to control their impulses and desires, and that they should be able to resist the temptation to indulge in pleasures that were harmful or destructive. He saw self-control as essential for living a virtuous life and for achieving a state of inner peace and tranquility.

One of the most notable aspects of Marcus Aurelius’ philosophy is his emphasis on the concept of “virtue.” He believed that individuals should strive to cultivate virtues such as wisdom, courage, justice, and self-control, and that these virtues were essential for living a happy and fulfilling life. He saw virtue as a form of inner excellence, and believed that individuals could achieve a state of tranquility and peace of mind by cultivating virtues.

Marcus Aurelius also believed in the importance of humility and the recognition of one’s own limitations. He believed that individuals should not be consumed by pride or arrogance, and that they should be humble in the face of their own weaknesses and imperfections. He saw humility as a key component of wisdom and self-control.

Another important theme in Marcus Aurelius’ philosophy was the idea of moral duty. He believed that individuals had a duty to contribute to the greater good of society, and that they should use their talents and abilities to benefit others. He saw this as a way of living in accordance with nature, and believed that individuals could achieve a state of inner peace and tranquility by fulfilling their moral obligations.

In “Meditations,” Marcus Aurelius also reflects on the transience of life and the inevitability of death. He encourages individuals to focus on what is truly important in life, such as cultivating virtue and living in accordance with nature, rather than being consumed by the fear of death or the desire for material possessions. He saw death as a natural and inevitable part of life, and believed that individuals should accept it with equanimity.

In conclusion, Marcus Aurelius’ philosophy was characterized by a focus on rationality, self-control, living in accordance with nature, and the cultivation of virtues such as wisdom, courage, justice, and self-control. He believed that individuals should focus on the things that were within their control, and that they should strive to live in harmony with the natural world.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca, commonly known as Seneca, was a Roman philosopher, statesman, and playwright who lived from 4 BCE to 65 CE. He was a prominent figure in Stoicism and his philosophy focused on ethical issues and the cultivation of wisdom, courage, justice, and self-control.

Seneca believed that the pursuit of wisdom and virtue was the key to a happy life. He believed that individuals could achieve a state of tranquility and peace of mind by living in accordance with nature and reason. Seneca’s philosophy was heavily influenced by the Stoic tradition, and he saw himself as a follower of the Stoic philosophers, particularly Epictetus.

One of the central themes of Seneca’s philosophy was the idea that external events were beyond our control, but that we had control over our own thoughts and actions. He believed that individuals could achieve a state of inner peace and tranquility by accepting the things that were beyond their control and focusing on the things that were within their control. Seneca saw this as a way of achieving a state of detachment from external events, which he believed was essential for living a virtuous life.

Seneca believed that individuals should live in accordance with nature and reason, and that they should cultivate wisdom and self-control. He believed that individuals should strive to be free from the emotional attachments and desires that often lead to suffering and pain. Seneca believed that individuals should focus on developing an inner sense of peace and tranquility, and that they should seek to be free from the fear of death and the fear of the unknown.

Seneca also believed that individuals had a duty to contribute to the greater good of society. He believed that individuals should use their talents and abilities to benefit others and to help create a more just and equitable society. Seneca believed that individuals should be concerned with the welfare of others and that they should be committed to the common good.

One of Seneca’s most famous works is “On the Shortness of Life,” in which he argues that individuals waste their lives by pursuing things that are ultimately unimportant. Seneca believed that individuals should focus on what is truly important in life, such as cultivating wisdom and virtue, rather than wasting their time on frivolous pursuits.

Seneca also wrote extensively about the importance of self-control and self-discipline. He believed that individuals should be able to control their impulses and desires, and that they should be able to resist the temptation to indulge in pleasures that were harmful or destructive. Seneca believed that self-control was essential for living a virtuous life and for achieving a state of inner peace and tranquility.

Another important theme in Seneca’s philosophy was the idea of living in the present moment. He believed that individuals should focus on the present moment and that they should not be consumed by regrets about the past or anxieties about the future. Seneca believed that the present moment was the only moment that individuals had any control over, and that they should strive to live in the present moment as fully as possible.

Seneca also believed in the importance of moral courage. He believed that individuals should be willing to stand up for what they believed in, even if it meant going against popular opinion or risking their own safety. Seneca saw moral courage as essential for living a virtuous life and for standing up against injustice and oppression.

In conclusion, Seneca’s philosophy was characterized by a focus on ethical issues, the cultivation of wisdom, courage, justice, and self-control, and a commitment to the common good. He believed that individuals could achieve a state of tranquility and peace of mind by living in accordance with nature and reason, and that they should be committed to using their talents and abilities to benefit others and to help create a more just and equitable society.

Stoic Ethics is the branch of Stoic philosophy that deals with how we should live our lives in accordance with nature and reason. The Stoics believed that living a virtuous life was the key to happiness and that the only way to achieve this was through the cultivation of wisdom and the practice of virtue.

At the heart of Stoic Ethics was the concept of eudaimonia, which was the ultimate goal of human life. Eudaimonia was often translated as “happiness,” but the Stoics saw it as more than just a subjective feeling of pleasure. They believed that eudaimonia was a state of flourishing that came from living in accordance with nature and reason.

The Stoics believed that human beings were rational animals and that our ability to reason was what set us apart from other animals. They believed that the key to living a virtuous life was to use our reason to understand and align ourselves with the natural order of the universe.

The Stoics believed that there were four cardinal virtues that were essential for living a virtuous life: wisdom, courage, justice, and self-control. These virtues were interdependent and interconnected, and they all contributed to the achievement of eudaimonia.

Wisdom was considered the foundation of the other virtues, and it was the ability to understand and align oneself with the natural order of the universe. The Stoics believed that wisdom was gained through the study of philosophy and the contemplation of the natural world.

Courage was the ability to face difficult situations with strength and resilience. The Stoics believed that courage was not the absence of fear, but the ability to act in the face of fear.

Justice was the virtue of fairness and equality. The Stoics believed that justice was essential for the functioning of society and that it required treating all individuals with dignity and respect.

Self-control was the ability to restrain one’s impulses and desires. The Stoics believed that self-control was necessary for living a virtuous life because it allowed individuals to act in accordance with reason rather than being driven by their passions.

The Stoics believed that the key to living a virtuous life was to focus on the things that were within our control and to accept with equanimity the things that were outside of our control. They believed that external events were beyond our control, and that the only thing we could control was our own thoughts and actions.

The Stoics also believed that individuals should cultivate a sense of detachment from external events and to focus on developing an inner sense of peace and tranquility. They believed that individuals should strive to be free from the emotional attachments and desires that often lead to suffering and pain.

The Stoics also believed that individuals had a duty to contribute to the greater good of society. They believed that individuals had a responsibility to use their talents and abilities to benefit others and to help create a more just and equitable society.

In conclusion, Stoic Ethics was a branch of Stoic philosophy that emphasized the importance of living a virtuous life in accordance with nature and reason. The Stoics believed that eudaimonia, or a state of flourishing, could be achieved through the cultivation of wisdom and the practice of the four cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, justice, and self-control. They believed that individuals should focus on the things that were within their control and accept with equanimity the things that were outside of their control. The Stoics also believed that individuals had a duty to contribute to the greater good of society and to use their talents and abilities to create a more just and equitable world. Stoic Ethics provided a comprehensive framework for living a meaningful and fulfilling life, and it remains a valuable source of wisdom and guidance for individuals seeking to live a virtuous life today.