Category: Philosophical Doctrines

Allegory is a literary device in which an abstract or symbolic concept is presented through a story, character, or event that represents a real-life situation or moral lesson. It is a technique used by writers to convey complex ideas or concepts in an easily understandable and relatable manner. Allegories are often used to teach lessons, express opinions, or criticize social or political issues.

The term “allegory” comes from the Greek word “allos,” which means “other,” and “agoreuein,” which means “to speak in public.” Therefore, allegory means “to speak in public about something else.” This definition accurately reflects the nature of allegories as they often use characters, settings, and events to represent abstract ideas.

Allegories can take many forms, including novels, plays, poems, and even visual art. In literature, allegories can be categorized as either explicit or implicit. Explicit allegories are more obvious in their representation of abstract ideas and often include a clear moral or lesson. For example, in the novel Animal Farm by George Orwell, the animals that overthrow their human oppressors represent the working class, and the pigs that take over the farm represent the corrupt political leaders that abuse their power. The story teaches the lesson that revolutions can be corrupted by those in power, and that vigilance is necessary to prevent tyranny.

Implicit allegories, on the other hand, are less obvious in their representation of abstract ideas and often require the reader to make connections between the story and the real world. For example, in the novel Lord of the Flies by William Golding, the characters and events on the island can be seen as an allegory for the breakdown of society and the inherent evil that exists within human nature. The story teaches the lesson that without the constraints of society, individuals can become violent and dangerous.

Allegories can also be used to express political or social commentary. For example, in the book Brave New World by Aldous Huxley, the society in which the story is set can be seen as an allegory for the dangers of a society that values pleasure and conformity over individuality and freedom. The story warns of the dangers of a society that sacrifices individuality for the sake of stability.

Allegories can also be used to convey religious or spiritual beliefs. For example, in the poem “The Pilgrim’s Progress” by John Bunyan, the character Christian’s journey to the Celestial City can be seen as an allegory for the Christian journey to salvation. The story teaches the lesson that faith and perseverance are necessary to overcome the challenges and temptations of the world.

One of the most famous allegories in literature is the story of “The Tortoise and the Hare.” In this story, the slow and steady tortoise wins the race against the fast and overconfident hare. The story teaches the lesson that perseverance and determination are more important than natural talent or ability.

Allegories can also be used in visual art. For example, the painting “The Garden of Earthly Delights” by Hieronymus Bosch can be seen as an allegory for the dangers of indulging in earthly pleasures. The painting depicts a world of excess and temptation, filled with strange and grotesque creatures.

In conclusion, allegory is a powerful literary device used to convey complex ideas and concepts through the use of characters, events, and settings that represent abstract or symbolic concepts. Allegories can take many forms, including novels, plays, poems, and visual art. They can be explicit or implicit, political or social, religious or spiritual, and can teach a wide range of lessons and morals. Allegories continue to be an important tool in literature and art, as they allow writers and artists to express their opinions and beliefs in a creative and relatable way.

Materialism is a philosophical perspective that emphasizes the importance of material objects and physical reality over spiritual or abstract concepts. Materialists believe that the physical world is the only reality, and that everything, including human consciousness and emotions, can be explained in terms of physical matter and natural laws.

The origins of materialism can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophy, where the pre-Socratic philosopher Democritus proposed that the universe is composed of indivisible particles called atoms. This theory laid the groundwork for a materialist view of the world that emphasized the importance of physical objects and the laws that govern their interactions.

In the modern era, materialism has been associated with the scientific method and the study of natural phenomena. Materialists believe that scientific inquiry and experimentation can provide a comprehensive understanding of the physical world and all of its components, including human beings.

At the heart of materialism is the idea that physical matter is the fundamental building block of reality. According to this perspective, everything that exists, from rocks and trees to animals and human beings, is composed of physical matter in various forms. Materialists reject the idea that there is anything beyond the physical world, such as spiritual or supernatural forces.

One of the key implications of materialism is that everything that exists can be explained in terms of natural laws and physical processes. This means that human consciousness, emotions, and mental states can all be reduced to physical phenomena in the brain and nervous system. Materialists argue that the mind is not a separate entity that exists apart from the body, but rather an emergent property of physical matter.

This perspective has significant implications for how we understand the world around us and our place within it. Materialists believe that human beings are part of the natural world and subject to the same physical laws that govern everything else. They reject the idea that there is any inherent purpose or meaning to existence, beyond what we create for ourselves.

For materialists, the pursuit of knowledge and understanding is a central aspect of human existence. Science and rational inquiry are seen as the most reliable means of uncovering the truth about the world and our place within it. Materialists reject superstition, religious dogma, and other forms of belief that are not based on empirical evidence and logical reasoning.

Critics of materialism argue that it reduces human beings to mere machines, devoid of any inherent value or significance. They argue that a purely materialist perspective cannot account for the richness of human experience, including art, literature, and music. Critics also point out that materialism has been associated with a narrow focus on individualism and consumerism, which can lead to a neglect of social and environmental concerns.

Despite these criticisms, materialism remains a popular and influential philosophical perspective in contemporary society. Its emphasis on empirical evidence and rational inquiry has contributed to significant advances in science and technology, and has helped us to better understand the natural world and our place within it.

In conclusion, materialism is a philosophical perspective that emphasizes the importance of physical matter and natural laws in understanding the world and human existence. Materialists reject the idea of a supernatural realm and believe that everything can be explained in terms of physical phenomena. While materialism has been criticized for reducing human beings to machines and neglecting spiritual and social concerns, it remains a popular and influential perspective in contemporary society, particularly within the scientific community.

Physicalism is a philosophical position that asserts that everything that exists can be explained in terms of physical entities and their properties. According to physicalism, the universe and all of its contents, including living organisms, consciousness, and mental states, can be reduced to the properties of matter and energy. In other words, everything that exists can be explained by the laws of physics, chemistry, and other natural sciences.

Physicalism is often contrasted with dualism, which posits that there are two distinct kinds of entities in the universe: physical entities and non-physical entities such as the mind or soul. In dualism, the mind is seen as a separate entity from the body, and is not reducible to physical properties.

The roots of physicalism can be traced back to the scientific revolution of the 17th century, when thinkers such as Isaac Newton and Galileo Galilei began to develop a mechanistic view of the universe. This view held that the universe was a giant machine, governed by fixed physical laws that could be understood and predicted through scientific inquiry.

The rise of neuroscience in the 20th century gave physicalism a new boost, as scientists began to explore the relationship between the brain and consciousness. Physicalist theories of mind suggest that mental states are not separate from physical states of the brain, but rather are identical to them. For example, a physicalist might argue that the experience of pain is simply a particular pattern of neural activity in the brain.

One of the main arguments in favor of physicalism is the argument from causal closure. This argument holds that every event has a physical cause, and that physical causes are sufficient to explain all other events. According to this view, mental states are not a separate category of causation, but rather are simply the result of physical processes in the brain.

Another argument in favor of physicalism is the argument from parsimony. This argument holds that physicalism is the simplest and most straightforward explanation for the universe and all of its contents. By reducing everything to physical properties, physicalism avoids the need for any additional, non-physical entities or causes.

However, physicalism is not without its critics. One of the main objections to physicalism is the problem of consciousness. Critics of physicalism argue that physical properties alone cannot explain subjective experiences such as the taste of chocolate or the feeling of love. They argue that consciousness is a separate entity that cannot be reduced to physical states of the brain.

Another objection to physicalism is the problem of mental causation. If mental states are identical to physical states, how can they cause physical events in the world? Critics of physicalism argue that mental causation is impossible under a physicalist framework, and that a dualistic view of mind and body is necessary to explain how mental states can have causal power.

Despite these objections, physicalism remains a popular philosophical position, particularly in the natural sciences. Physicalist theories have been successful in explaining many phenomena, from the behavior of subatomic particles to the workings of the human brain. However, the debate over the nature of the mind and its relationship to the physical world is likely to continue for many years to come.

Pantheism is a philosophical and religious belief that asserts that the universe and all its components, including nature and all living beings, are divine and part of a single, unified whole. Pantheists view the universe as an all-encompassing, interconnected entity that is both immanent and transcendent, and they often see divinity as inherent in everything.

The word “pantheism” comes from the Greek words “pan” (meaning “all”) and “theos” (meaning “god”). Pantheism is a form of monism, which asserts that all reality can be reduced to a single substance or essence. In pantheism, this essence is often described as “God” or “the divine,” and is seen as synonymous with the universe itself.

One of the core beliefs of pantheism is that the universe is self-sufficient and self-organizing, and does not require a creator or external force to sustain it. Pantheists reject the idea of a personal God who intervenes in human affairs or has a plan for the world, instead viewing the universe as an organic, evolving entity that follows its own natural laws.

Pantheists also view humans as an integral part of the natural world, rather than as separate or superior to it. They believe that humans are connected to all other living beings, and that the same divine essence that exists in the universe also exists within each individual.

The concept of divinity in pantheism is often described as “immanent” and “transcendent.” Immanence refers to the idea that divinity is present and active within the universe, and can be experienced directly through nature, art, music, and other forms of creative expression. Transcendence refers to the idea that divinity is beyond human understanding, and is beyond the limitations of time and space.

Pantheism is often associated with a reverence for nature and a deep appreciation for the beauty and complexity of the natural world. Pantheists believe that all of nature is sacred and should be treated with respect and care, and they often advocate for environmentalism and conservation.

Pantheism has been a significant influence in many areas of philosophy and religion, including Hinduism, Taoism, and some forms of Buddhism. In Western philosophy, pantheism has been associated with thinkers such as Baruch Spinoza and Ralph Waldo Emerson.

In conclusion, pantheism is a belief system that sees the universe as a single, unified entity that is inherently divine. Pantheists reject the idea of a personal God and view humans as an integral part of the natural world. They see divinity as both immanent and transcendent, and often have a deep reverence for nature and the environment. Pantheism has influenced many areas of philosophy and religion, and continues to be a significant worldview for many people today.

Panentheism is a philosophical and theological belief that asserts that God or the divine is both transcendent and immanent, meaning that God is beyond the physical world, yet at the same time present and active within it. The term itself is derived from the Greek words “pan” (meaning all) and “en” (meaning in), and “theos” (meaning God). Thus, panentheism literally means “God in everything.”

Panentheism is distinct from pantheism, which asserts that God and the universe are one and the same, and from theism, which asserts that God is separate from the universe. In panentheism, God is not the universe, but rather God is present in, and actively involved in, the universe.

One way to think about panentheism is to imagine the universe as a painting, with God as the artist. In this analogy, the canvas is the physical universe, while the paint and brush strokes represent God’s presence and activity within the universe. God is not the canvas, but without the canvas, there would be no painting. Similarly, God is not the universe, but without the universe, there would be no divine expression.

Panentheism can also be understood as a way of reconciling the seemingly opposing concepts of immanence and transcendence. Immanence refers to God’s presence within the universe, while transcendence refers to God’s existence beyond the universe. In panentheism, God is both immanent and transcendent, as God is present within the universe but also transcends it.

Another key aspect of panentheism is the idea that the universe is not all there is to reality. While the universe is the physical manifestation of God’s presence, there is also a spiritual reality that transcends the physical universe. This spiritual reality is often referred to as the “divine ground” or the “cosmic Christ” in Christian panentheism.

Panentheism has its roots in ancient Greek philosophy, particularly in the work of the philosopher Heraclitus. However, it has also been embraced by many religious and spiritual traditions, including Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism.

In Christianity, panentheism is often associated with the idea of the Incarnation, which asserts that God became human in the person of Jesus Christ. In this view, Jesus is not simply a human being, but also the embodiment of the divine. This understanding of Christ as both human and divine is central to many forms of Christian panentheism.

In Hinduism, panentheism is closely associated with the concept of Brahman, which is often described as the ultimate reality that underlies all existence. According to Hindu panentheism, Brahman is both immanent and transcendent, and is present in all things, from the smallest atom to the largest galaxy.

In Buddhism, panentheism is associated with the concept of Buddha-nature, which refers to the inherent potential for enlightenment that exists within all beings. According to Buddhist panentheism, the universe is not separate from the ultimate reality of Buddha-nature, but rather is an expression of it.

In conclusion, panentheism is a philosophical and theological belief that asserts that God is both transcendent and immanent, and that God is present in, and actively involved in, the universe. Panentheism offers a way of reconciling the seemingly opposing concepts of immanence and transcendence, and is embraced by many religious and spiritual traditions around the world.

Mysticism is a term that refers to the pursuit of an intimate, direct, and personal experience of the divine, spiritual, or transcendent reality beyond ordinary perception or understanding. It is a path of spiritual development that involves the exploration of the mysteries of existence and the search for a deeper sense of meaning and purpose in life. Mysticism can be found in different religions and spiritual traditions, but it is not limited to any particular dogma or belief system.

The term mysticism comes from the Greek word mystikos, which means “secret” or “hidden.” Mystics believe that there is a hidden or mysterious dimension to reality that can only be accessed through direct experience. This experience is often described as a state of union or oneness with the divine, in which the individual self dissolves and merges with the infinite.

Mystics seek to cultivate a direct experience of the divine through various practices, such as meditation, contemplation, prayer, ritual, and asceticism. These practices are intended to quiet the mind and open the heart to the transcendent reality that lies beyond the ordinary world of appearances. Through this process, mystics hope to attain a deeper understanding of the nature of reality and the purpose of human existence.

One of the key features of mysticism is its emphasis on the direct experience of the divine. Unlike traditional religious practices, which may rely on scripture, doctrine, or ritual to connect with the divine, mystics seek to transcend these intermediaries and encounter the divine directly. This direct experience is often described as a state of ecstasy or rapture, in which the mystic is overcome with a sense of awe and wonder at the beauty and majesty of the divine.

Another important aspect of mysticism is its emphasis on the ineffable nature of the divine. Mystics recognize that the ultimate reality cannot be fully grasped or understood by the human mind, which is limited by its finite nature. Instead, they use metaphor, symbolism, and paradox to describe their experiences of the divine, recognizing that language and concepts can only point to the transcendent reality, but cannot capture it fully.

Mysticism can be found in different religions and spiritual traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In each tradition, mystics have sought to deepen their understanding of the divine through their own unique practices and experiences.

In Hinduism, mysticism is expressed through the practice of yoga, which is a system of physical, mental, and spiritual practices designed to unite the individual self with the divine. Through meditation, breathing exercises, and other practices, yogis seek to quiet the mind and achieve a state of inner peace and tranquility, which opens the door to the direct experience of the divine.

Spinoza’s pantheism is a complex philosophy that proposes that everything in the universe is part of a single, infinite substance, which he called “God or Nature.” This idea challenges traditional conceptions of God as a supernatural being or force and instead suggests that God is the totality of the universe, including all matter and energy, as well as the laws and principles that govern them.

One of the key concepts in Spinoza’s pantheism is the idea of substance. Substance, for Spinoza, is that which exists in and of itself and does not depend on anything else for its existence. In Spinoza’s pantheism, the substance is God or Nature, which is infinite, eternal, and self-sufficient. According to Spinoza, everything that exists is a mode or expression of this single substance, which means that everything in the universe is interconnected and interdependent.

Another key concept in Spinoza’s pantheism is the idea of attributes. Spinoza believed that there are two attributes of God or Nature, which are extension (physical matter) and thought (mental processes). These attributes are not separate from each other, but rather two different ways of looking at the same substance. In other words, physical matter and mental processes are both aspects of the same underlying substance.

Spinoza also believed that there is no fundamental distinction between mind and body. According to him, the mind and body are two different ways of describing the same thing, which is the individual human being. In other words, the mind is not a separate entity that is distinct from the body, but rather a part of it.

In Spinoza’s pantheism, everything in the universe is governed by a set of laws and principles, which are immanent in the substance itself. These laws and principles are not imposed on the universe from outside, but are inherent in the substance itself. This means that everything in the universe follows these laws and principles naturally and inevitably, without the need for any external intervention.

One of the implications of Spinoza’s pantheism is that there is no free will in the traditional sense. According to Spinoza, everything in the universe, including human beings, is determined by the laws and principles that govern the substance. This means that human actions and decisions are not truly free, but are the inevitable result of these laws and principles.

However, Spinoza also believed that there is a kind of freedom that is available to human beings. This freedom comes from understanding the laws and principles that govern the substance and aligning oneself with them. By understanding these laws and principles, human beings can gain a greater sense of control over their lives and make choices that are in harmony with the universe.

Spinoza’s pantheism also has important implications for ethics. According to Spinoza, the ultimate goal of human life is to achieve a state of happiness or joy, which comes from aligning oneself with the laws and principles of the universe. This means that the key to happiness is not the pursuit of pleasure or the avoidance of pain, but rather a deeper understanding of the nature of the universe and our place in it.

One important concept of Spinoza’s pantheism is conatus. Spinoza’s concept of conatus refers to an innate tendency or drive for self-preservation that exists in all living things. According to Spinoza, every individual has a conatus or a striving to continue existing, and this striving is the basis of all action.

For Spinoza, the conatus is not limited to human beings but is present in all living things, including animals and plants. He believed that the conatus is a necessary part of our nature and is the driving force behind all our actions. Spinoza’s conatus is similar to the idea of a “will to live” or “life force” that is found in many other philosophical and scientific traditions.

The conatus also plays a crucial role in Spinoza’s ethics. He believed that the ultimate goal of human life is to increase one’s power of existence or conatus. This means that we should strive to cultivate those habits and practices that will help us to better preserve ourselves and increase our vitality. Spinoza believed that this kind of self-improvement is not only good for us individually but is also beneficial for society as a whole.

Overall, Spinoza’s concept of conatus is a key element of his philosophy, providing a foundation for his ideas about human nature, ethics, and the relationship between individuals and society.

Panpsychism is a philosophical theory that proposes that all matter has consciousness or a “mind-like” quality. It suggests that even the smallest particles that make up our universe, such as atoms and subatomic particles, possess some level of consciousness. This theory challenges the traditional notion that consciousness is unique to humans and animals and proposes that it is a fundamental aspect of the universe.

The basic idea of panpsychism is that consciousness is a fundamental property of the universe, much like mass and energy. It suggests that consciousness exists in every physical entity, from the smallest particles to the largest structures in the universe. This means that even objects that we consider inanimate, such as rocks and planets, have some level of consciousness.

Panpsychism proposes that consciousness is not a product of complex biological processes, but rather a basic property of matter. This means that even simple physical systems, such as atoms and molecules, have some level of consciousness. This consciousness is thought to be more basic and primitive than the kind of consciousness that humans and animals possess.

There are different variations of panpsychism, but they all share the basic idea that consciousness is a fundamental aspect of the universe. One version of panpsychism is called “micropsychism,” which suggests that consciousness is present in every individual particle. Another version is called “cosmopsychism,” which proposes that the universe as a whole has a consciousness.

Panpsychism has been compared to the ancient philosophy of animism, which suggests that all things, including plants and inanimate objects, have a soul or spirit. However, panpsychism differs from animism in that it proposes that consciousness is a fundamental property of matter, rather than a spiritual force.

Panpsychism has been the subject of much philosophical debate and discussion. One of the main criticisms of panpsychism is that it is difficult to explain how consciousness arises from inanimate matter. It is also challenging to explain how consciousness can exist in very simple systems, such as atoms and subatomic particles, that do not have a nervous system or brain.

Despite these criticisms, panpsychism has gained popularity in recent years, especially among philosophers who are interested in the nature of consciousness and the mind-body problem. It has also been proposed as a solution to the hard problem of consciousness, which is the challenge of explaining how subjective experiences arise from the physical processes of the brain.

In conclusion, panpsychism is a philosophical theory that proposes that all matter has some level of consciousness. It suggests that consciousness is a fundamental property of the universe and exists in every physical entity, from the smallest particles to the largest structures in the universe. While panpsychism has been the subject of much philosophical debate and criticism, it has gained popularity in recent years and is considered by some to be a promising solution to the hard problem of consciousness.

Egalitarianism is a political philosophy that advocates for equality and social justice. It is based on the belief that all individuals should be treated as equals, with equal rights and opportunities, regardless of their gender, race, ethnicity, religion, or any other characteristic that may be used to discriminate against them. Egalitarianism seeks to eliminate all forms of inequality and promote a fair and just society for all individuals.

At its core, egalitarianism is founded on the idea that every person has inherent value and dignity, and therefore deserves equal treatment and respect. This means that everyone should have access to the same resources, opportunities, and rights, without discrimination or prejudice. Egalitarianism also emphasizes the importance of social justice, which means ensuring that all members of society have the same chances to succeed and thrive, regardless of their background or circumstances.

One of the key principles of egalitarianism is the notion of distributive justice, which refers to the fair distribution of resources, wealth, and opportunities in society. Egalitarians believe that a just society must ensure that every individual has access to the same resources and opportunities, regardless of their social or economic status. This means that the distribution of wealth and resources should be based on need and merit, rather than on inherited privileges or unequal power structures.

Another important aspect of egalitarianism is the principle of equal opportunity, which means that all individuals should have access to the same opportunities for education, employment, and other aspects of life, regardless of their background or circumstances. This principle recognizes that individuals may have different abilities and talents, but everyone should have an equal chance to develop and utilize their skills and abilities.

Egalitarianism also promotes the idea of social equality, which means that all individuals should have equal status and dignity in society, regardless of their race, gender, ethnicity, religion, or any other characteristic. This means that discrimination and prejudice should be eliminated, and that every person should be treated with respect and fairness.

There are several different approaches to egalitarianism, each emphasizing different aspects of the philosophy. One approach is known as liberal egalitarianism, which emphasizes the importance of individual freedom and autonomy, while also recognizing the need for social justice and equality. Another approach is known as democratic egalitarianism, which focuses on the importance of democratic institutions and processes in achieving social justice and equality.

Egalitarianism has been influential in many social and political movements throughout history, including the civil rights movement, the feminist movement, and the labor movement. These movements have sought to eliminate discrimination and inequality based on race, gender, and economic status, and to promote social justice and equal rights for all individuals.

Critics of egalitarianism argue that it is unrealistic and unachievable, and that it ignores the natural differences between individuals in terms of talent, ability, and motivation. They also argue that egalitarianism can lead to a lack of incentive and motivation, as individuals may feel that their efforts and achievements are not rewarded or recognized.

Despite these criticisms, egalitarianism remains an important and influential political philosophy, with many advocates and supporters around the world. Its principles and values continue to inspire individuals and movements to work towards a more just and equal society for all.

Plato’s theory of Forms, also known as the theory of Ideas, is a central concept in his philosophy. According to Plato, the physical world that we perceive is merely a shadow or copy of the real world of Forms or Ideas. In this article, we will explore Plato’s theory of Forms, its key components, and its significance.

Plato’s theory of Forms is based on the idea that there are two distinct realms of existence: the world of Forms and the world of appearances. The world of Forms is the realm of reality, which is eternal, unchanging, and perfect. It is the realm of abstract entities, such as beauty, justice, goodness, and truth. The world of appearances, on the other hand, is the realm of sensory experience, which is temporal, changing, and imperfect. It is the realm of physical objects, such as trees, tables, and chairs.

According to Plato, the physical world that we perceive is merely a copy or imitation of the world of Forms. The physical objects that we see are imperfect copies of the ideal Forms that exist in the world of Forms. For example, a particular apple is an imperfect copy of the ideal Form of apple, which exists in the world of Forms. The ideal Form of apple is eternal, unchanging, and perfect, whereas the physical apple is temporal, changing, and imperfect.

Plato believed that the Forms or Ideas are the ultimate reality and the source of all knowledge. He argued that our knowledge of the world is not based on sensory experience but on our innate knowledge of the Forms. The Forms are the objects of intellectual intuition, which is a form of knowledge that is not derived from sensory experience but from reason.

Plato’s theory of Forms has several key components. Firstly, the Forms are eternal and unchanging entities that exist independently of the physical world. They are not created or destroyed but are always present. Secondly, the Forms are the ultimate reality and the source of all knowledge. They are the objects of intellectual intuition, which is the highest form of knowledge. Thirdly, the physical world that we perceive is merely a copy or imitation of the world of Forms. The physical objects that we see are imperfect copies of the ideal Forms that exist in the world of Forms. Fourthly, the Forms are the cause or explanation of the physical world. The physical world is shaped by the Forms and is dependent on them.

Plato’s theory of Forms has several significant implications. Firstly, it challenges the traditional view that sensory experience is the only source of knowledge. Plato believed that our knowledge of the world is not based on sensory experience but on our innate knowledge of the Forms. Secondly, it provides a metaphysical foundation for ethics and aesthetics. According to Plato, the Forms of beauty, justice, and goodness are objective and universal entities that exist independently of human opinion or cultural norms. Thirdly, it provides a framework for understanding the relationship between the physical world and the spiritual or intellectual realm. According to Plato, the physical world is dependent on the world of Forms and is shaped by it.