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Ethics in research refers to the principles and standards of conduct that guide researchers in their work. These principles are designed to protect the rights, dignity, and welfare of research participants and to ensure that research is conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. The following are some of the key ethical considerations in research.
Informed Consent:
Informed consent is the process of obtaining the voluntary and informed agreement of individuals to participate in research. This involves providing participants with information about the research project, including the purpose of the study, the risks and benefits of participation, and their right to withdraw from the study at any time.
Privacy and Confidentiality:
Privacy and confidentiality are important ethical considerations in research. Researchers must take steps to protect the privacy of research participants, such as ensuring that data is stored securely and that participants’ personal information is not disclosed without their consent.
Data Protection:
Researchers must take steps to protect the data they collect during their research. This includes ensuring that data is stored securely and that access to data is restricted to those who have a legitimate need to access it.
Protection of Vulnerable Groups:
Vulnerable groups, such as children, pregnant women, and individuals with mental or physical disabilities, require special protections in research. Researchers must take steps to ensure that these groups are not exploited or subjected to undue risk in the course of their research.
Scientific Integrity:
Scientific integrity is a fundamental principle of research ethics. Researchers must be honest and transparent in their work, and they must ensure that their research is conducted in a manner that is consistent with the principles of scientific inquiry.
Ethics Review:
Many institutions require that research projects be reviewed by an ethics committee or institutional review board (IRB). This is to ensure that the research project meets ethical standards and that the rights of participants are protected.
In conclusion, ethics in research is essential to ensure that research is conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. Researchers must take steps to protect the rights, dignity, and welfare of research participants, and they must ensure that their research is conducted in a manner that is consistent with the principles of scientific inquiry. By following these principles, researchers can ensure that their work is conducted in an ethical and responsible manner.
Research is a systematic process of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting information to answer a specific question or solve a problem. The research process involves several steps, which are often iterative and cyclical in nature.
The first step in the research process is to identify the research problem or question. This involves defining the scope of the research and identifying the key issues to be addressed. It is important to ensure that the research problem is clearly defined and that the objectives are specific and measurable.
The next step is to review the literature to determine what has already been published on the topic. This involves conducting a thorough search of academic and professional databases to identify relevant articles, books, and other sources of information. The purpose of the literature review is to identify gaps in the existing knowledge base and to identify potential research questions.
The third step is to develop a research design or methodology. This involves determining the approach that will be used to collect data, such as surveys, interviews, or experiments. The research design must be carefully planned to ensure that the data collected is valid, reliable, and relevant to the research question.
The fourth step is to collect and analyze data. This involves gathering information through the chosen research method and using statistical tools to analyze the data. The analysis may involve identifying patterns, correlations, or other relationships between variables.
The fifth step is to draw conclusions and make recommendations based on the data analysis. The conclusions should be based on the findings of the research and should be supported by evidence. The recommendations should be actionable and relevant to the research question.
Finally, the research process involves communicating the results of the study. This may involve writing a research report, presenting the findings at a conference, or publishing the results in a peer-reviewed journal. The communication of the results is important to ensure that the research is widely disseminated and that others can learn from the findings.
In conclusion, the research process is a complex and iterative process that involves several steps, including identifying the research question, reviewing the literature, developing a research design, collecting and analyzing data, drawing conclusions, and communicating the results. By following a rigorous research process, researchers can ensure that their findings are valid, reliable, and relevant to the research question.
Research is a systematic and scientific approach to gather and analyze information to find solutions to problems or answer questions. It is a process that involves a set of characteristics that define its nature and importance. Here are some of the essential characteristics of research:
Systematic:
Research is a systematic process that involves a series of steps to collect and analyze data. It follows a structured approach to ensure that the information gathered is accurate, reliable, and valid.
Empirical:
Research is based on evidence and facts rather than opinions or assumptions. It involves gathering data through observation, experimentation, surveys, interviews, or other methods.
Objective:
Research is unbiased and free from personal opinions or beliefs. It is focused on finding the truth and not influenced by personal feelings or interests.
Logical:
Research follows a logical and sequential approach. It involves developing a hypothesis, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions based on the evidence.
Replicable:
Research is replicable, meaning that the process can be repeated by other researchers to confirm the findings. This ensures the validity and reliability of the results.
Rigorous:
Research is a rigorous process that involves attention to detail and adherence to established methodologies. It requires careful planning, execution, and analysis to ensure accuracy and validity.
Cumulative:
Research builds on previous findings and contributes to the development of knowledge in a particular field. It involves continuous exploration and discovery to enhance our understanding of a particular topic or issue.
In conclusion, research is a critical process that involves a set of characteristics that define its nature and importance. It is systematic, empirical, objective, logical, replicable, rigorous, and cumulative. These characteristics ensure that the research process is valid, reliable, and contributes to the development of knowledge in a particular field.
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To begin with, research is the systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data to answer questions or solve problems. It plays a critical role in our daily lives as it helps us make informed decisions, understand the world around us, and improve our quality of life. The following are some of the importance of research in daily life.
Firstly, research provides us with a better understanding of the world we live in. It helps us gain knowledge about various fields such as science, technology, medicine, social sciences, and more. For example, research in medicine enables us to understand diseases better, develop effective treatments, and improve our overall health. Research in social sciences helps us understand human behavior, social trends, and societal issues.
Secondly, research helps us make informed decisions. Whether we are making a big purchase or deciding which school to attend, research plays an important role in guiding us towards the right decision. By gathering information and analyzing data, we can make informed choices that align with our needs and preferences.
Thirdly, research drives innovation and progress. Research has played a critical role in advancing technology, medicine, and other fields. For example, research in technology has led to the development of new products and services that have transformed our lives. Research in medicine has led to new treatments and cures for diseases that were once thought to be incurable.
Finally, research helps us solve problems. From global issues like climate change to personal problems like finding a cure for a rare disease, research is crucial in finding solutions. By gathering data and analyzing it, researchers can identify the root causes of problems and develop effective solutions.
In conclusion, research is essential in our daily lives as it provides us with knowledge, helps us make informed decisions, drives innovation and progress, and helps us solve problems. It is a critical component in shaping our world and improving our quality of life.
This lecture will briefly discuss the meaning, nature, and dynamics of a research gap. In particular, it will address the following questions:
1) What is a research gap?
2) What is the importance of identifying the research gap?
3) How to identify a research gap?
In addressing these three important questions, this lecture will give more weight on the third question. This is because many fledgling scholars and master’s and doctoral students struggled in identifying the gap in their research, thesis, or dissertation. Hence, it is the goal of this lecture to spare them the unnecessary burden of circling the mountain several times before getting to the top.
So, what is a research gap?
Understood more broadly, a research gap is the problem that researchers would want to see addressed in the research. As the name suggests, it is the gap that researchers fill with their proposed research project.
Hence, a research gap is “what is missing” or “what is not addressed” in the current state of knowledge. Put simply, a research gap is the question or problem that has not been answered in your area of specialization. For this reason, the research gap establishes “the need” or the “importance, urgency, and necessity” of your proposed research project, thesis, or dissertation.
This explains why all types of research always begin with a research gap. Indeed, no research activity is possible without the research gap.
Please note that this is what experienced reviewers or thesis/dissertation panel members are looking for during thesis or dissertation proposal defense. Thus, if your proposed thesis or dissertation does not have or does not clearly articulate the research gap, then chances are your thesis or dissertation proposal will be rejected and you have to do your research again from scratch.
This is the problem with many master’s and doctoral students when they write their thesis or dissertation. In most cases, because they are inexperienced researchers and, sometimes, they do not consult their thesis/dissertation adviser regularly, they simply start with a research aim and thought that it’s already the research gap. But the research gap is not the same with the research aim. And in some cases, master’s and doctoral students just copied or patterned their thesis or dissertation on previous researches.
Let us consider the example below.
Supposed the working title of the thesis/dissertation proposal is “Imposed Career Study among University Students in Hong Kong”. With this title, we can have the following research aim:
“The proposed research aims to determine the lived experiences of those students who were just forced to take a certain career course according to the wishes of their parents or significant others and how it affects the psycho-emotional and social wellbeing of these students.”
Again, many master’s and doctoral students thought that the aim is already the problem or the research gap of the proposed research project. But as already mentioned, it is not.
So, what could possibly be the research gap of the above proposed research project?
Based on the above research aim, we can have, for example, the idea:
“The researcher may have learned from experience or through literature review that there are university students in Hong Kong who were just forced to take certain career course according to the wishes of their parents or significant others and that these students were devastated and became rebellious in schools. For this reason, these students may become social delinquents in the future. Now, based on the researcher’s initial review of related literature, it was found out that no study has been conducted on the topic.”
As we can see, the problem is that there are university students in Hong Kong who were just forced to take a certain career course according to the wishes of their parents or significant others. As a result of being just forced to take a certain career course, these students have become devastated and rebellious, which in turn will make them as social delinquents in the future. Also, there has been no study conducted on this topic in Hong Kong. This is exactly what we meant by a “research gap”. This is “what is missing” or “what has not been addressed” in the current state of knowledge in this field. And with this research gap, we can now formulate the research aims, which reads:
“The proposed research aims to determine the lived experiences of those students who were just forced to take a certain career course according to the wishes of their parents or significant others and how it affects the psycho-emotional and social wellbeing of these students.”
If one may ask why the need for this study, then the researcher may add:
“The researcher argues that there is a need to determine the lived experiences of these students so that we can create a career decision-making program as an alternative in addressing the problem.”
As we can see, identifying the research gap and articulating it in the “background” or “rationale” of the study is important not only because it will spare the researcher the unnecessary toil of making major revision, but also because it will make the research publishable. For sure, if the researcher clearly identifies the research gap and articulates it in the background of the study, the reviewers or thesis defense panel members will be able to conclude right away that the proposed research project is unique and original because it is not a duplication of what have been done in the past. This will also send a message to the reviewers or thesis defense panel members that the researcher has deep knowledge of the topic under investigation. As is well known, finding original and innovative topics in the chosen field as well as identifying and articulating the research gap is never an easy feat.
Now that we have briefly discussed the nature and meaning of a research gap and its importance, the next question is how do we identify the research gap?
For experienced researchers, because they already have broad and deep knowledge on their chosen field of specialization, they can easily identify a research gap. However, for fledgling scholars as well as master’s and doctoral students, as already mentioned, identifying a research gap is never an easy feat. But the application of some proven techniques will somehow help ease the process.
Let me briefly discuss the three important techniques in identifying a research gap.
Of course, there are a number of techniques on how to identify a research gap, but the three points introduced below are the most effective ones.
First, when thinking of a topic in your field of specialization, it would greatly help if you start with something that you are passionate about, something that would seem like second skin to you.
For some obvious reason, being passionate at something makes you push yourself harder, and despite working long hours on it, you will still manage to smile. In fact, if you love what you are doing, then long and hard labor is turned into “play”. Hence, despite the hardships, you keep doing your research because you enjoyed it.
Of course, starting with something that you are passionate about in relation to identifying a research gap involves “choosing a particular topic” in your discipline or field of specialization. For instance, if your discipline is “education”, then you might be passionate about doing research on “teachers’ burnout level”, “philosophy of education”, “critical pedagogy”, or “lived experiences of teachers handling subjects not in line with their field of specialization”.
If your discipline is psychology, then you might be passionate about doing research on “social cognition”, “social control”, “racism”, “verbal communication”, or even “attraction, romance, and love”.
Second, once you have chosen a topic that you are passionate about, the next step is to “determine the mega trends and recent debates” in your discipline or field of specialization. This is important because once you know the mega trends or recent debates in your discipline or field of specialization, you can easily identify what have and have not been done in your discipline.
Determining the mega trends and recent debates in your discipline is also important because it will ensure that your research is timely and necessary. You have to remember that you do not do research for the sake of doing research, of completing a master’s or doctoral degree. You do research because there is a problem that needs to be addressed. Hence, a particular research is timely if the topic is one of the mega trends and recent debates in the field and it is necessary if it attempts to address a serious problem that requires urgent consideration.
Of course, determining the mega trends and recent debates in your discipline implies doing a literature review. This leads us to the third and last point.
Needless to say, you need to review recent literature in your chosen discipline or field of specialization so you may know what scholars have done so far. In this way, you will be able to identify possible gaps that you can fill in. For example, if your discipline is anthropology and you are passionate about doing research on the indigenous peoples in Southeast Asia, then you need to review literature on indigenous peoples in Southeast Asia in the last, say, 3-5 years.
Now, suppose several famous scholars on indigenous peoples in Southeast Asia have published on “the marginalization” of the Dayak indigenous people in Borneo, then this is precisely one of the mega trends and recent debates in this field of specialization.
Suppose you are interested in joining the discussion or debate on this topic, then you need to identify what have not been done by those scholars. It could be a problem that remains unsolved or a new insight that may help shed light on the issue being debated upon.
How do you do this?
Suppose there are 5 famous scholars working on the topic “the marginalization” of the indigenous peoples in Southeast Asia, particularly the Dayak indigenous people in Borneo. What you need to do now is review these pieces of literature and identify their concepts and arguments. For instance, you may say:
Scholar 1, in her work titled “Modernism and the Dayak People of Borneo”, says that the Dayak indigenous peoples in Borneo have been pushed further to the periphery by the forces of modernity, such as consumerism.
Scholar 2, in his work titled “Militarism in Borneo”, argues that one of the causes of the marginalization of the Dayak people in Borneo is the imposition of militarization in the island.
Scholar 3, in her work titled “The Resiliency of the Dayak People”, says that despite the constant presence of social forces that marginalized the Dayak people, the researcher found out that the Dayak people are very resilient. In fact, they have overcome every challenge that they faced and easily returned to their normal life.
Scholar 4, in his work titled “Different Faces of Marginalization in Borneo”, says that the Dayak people have been marginalized by different forces of globalization, such as the logging and mining companies.
Lastly, scholar 5, in her work titled “Rights, Recognition, and the Dayak People”, narrates not only how the Dayak people have been marginalized by the forces of globalization but also the basic and inalienable rights of the Dayak people.
Now, after reviewing these important pieces of literature about the marginalization of the Dayak people, you realized that no scholar on the Dayak people, so far as you know, has done research on “the way in which the Dayak people resisted any forms of marginalization”.
As you can see, this issue is one of the important topics on the debate about the marginalization of the Dayak people in Borneo, yet no scholar has brought this issue on the table. Hence, this could be a possible “gap” in this area of specialization that you can fill in with your research on the way in which the Dayak people resisted any forms of marginalization.
With this “research gap”, you may work, for example, on “the Dayak people’s struggle for recognition of their rights to ancestral domain”. Your working title may read:
“Self-Determination and the Dayak People’s Struggle for Recognition”
And your research’s main goal reads:
“This proposed thesis aims to explore how the Dayak people in Borneo resisted the forces of globalization that marginalized them.”
So, that’s what a research gap is and how to identify it.
Please note, however, that what I shared above are just some of the techniques on how to identify a research gap. There are other techniques that might help you in identifying a research gap or you may want to develop your own. What is important at this point is that through the discussion above you have now a basic understanding of what a research gap is and how to identify it.
And lastly, please note that the principles that we applied in the above discussion on how to identify a research gap can be applied to all disciplines, be they social sciences, humanities, natural sciences, education, engineering, mathematics, or psychology.
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Background of the Study in Research: Definition and the Core Elements it Contains
Before we embark on a detailed discussion on how to write the background of the study of your proposed research or thesis, it is important to first discuss its meaning and the core elements that it should contain. This is obviously because understanding the nature of the background of the study in research and knowing exactly what to include in it allow us to have both greater control and clear direction of the writing process.
So, what really is the background of the study and what are the core elements that it should contain?
The background of the study, which usually forms the first section of the introduction to a research paper or thesis, provides the overview of the study. In other words, it is that section of the research paper or thesis that establishes the context of the study. Its main function is to explain why the proposed research is important and essential to understanding the main aspects of the study.
The background of the study, therefore, is the section of the research paper or thesis that identifies the problem or gap of the study that needs to addressed and justifies the need for conducting the study. It also articulates the main goal of the study and the thesis statement, that is, the main claim or argument of the paper.
Given this brief understanding of the background of the study, we can anticipate what readers or thesis committee members expect from it. As we can see, the background of the study should contain the following major points:
1) brief discussion on what is known about the topic under investigation; 2) An articulation of the research gap or problem that needs to be addressed; 3) What the researcher would like to do or aim to achieve in the study (research goal); 4) The thesis statement, that is, the main argument or contention of the paper (which also serves as the reason why the researcher would want to pursue the study); 5) The major significance or contribution of the study to a particular discipline; and 6) Depending on the nature of the study, an articulation of the hypothesis of the study.
Thus, when writing the background of the study, you should plan and structure it based on the major points just mentioned. With this, you will have a clear picture of the flow of the tasks that need to be completed in writing this section of your research or thesis proposal.
Now, how do you go about writing the background of the study in your proposed research or thesis?
The next lessons will address this question.
How to Write the Opening Paragraphs of the Background of the Study?
To begin with, let us assume that you already have conducted a preliminary research on your chosen topic, that is, you already have read a lot of literature and gathered relevant information for writing the background of your study. Let us also assume that you already have identified the gap of your proposed research and have already developed the research questions and thesis statement. If you have not yet identified the gap in your proposed research, you might as well go back to our lesson on how to identify a research gap.
So, we will just put together everything that you have researched into a background of the study (assuming, again, that you already have the necessary information). But in this lesson, let’s just focus on writing the opening paragraphs.
It is important to note at this point that there are different styles of writing the background of the study. Hence, what I will be sharing with you here is not just “the” only way of writing the background of the study. As a matter of fact, there is no “one-size-fits-all” style of writing this part of the research or thesis. At the end of the day, you are free to develop your own. However, whatever style it would be, it always starts with a plan which structures the writing process into stages or steps. The steps that I will share with below are just some of the most effective ways of writing the background of the study in research.
So, let’s begin.
It is always a good idea to begin the background of your study by giving an overview of your research topic. This may include providing a definition of the key concepts of your research or highlighting the main developments of the research topic.
Let us suppose that the topic of your study is the “lived experiences of students with mathematical anxiety”.
Here, you may start the background of your study with a discussion on the meaning, nature, and dynamics of the term “mathematical anxiety”. The reason for this is too obvious: “mathematical anxiety” is a highly technical term that is specific to mathematics. Hence, this term is not readily understandable to non-specialists in this field.
So, you may write the opening paragraph of your background of the study with this:
“Mathematical anxiety refers to the individual’s unpleasant emotional mood responses when confronted with a mathematical situation.”
Since you do not invent the definition of the term “mathematical anxiety”, then you need to provide a citation to the source of the material from which you are quoting. For example, you may now say:
“Mathematical anxiety refers to the individual’s unpleasant emotional mood responses when confronted with a mathematical situation (Eliot, 2020).”
And then you may proceed with the discussion on the nature and dynamics of the term “mathematical anxiety”. You may say:
“Lou (2019) specifically identifies some of the manifestations of this type of anxiety, which include, but not limited to, depression, helplessness, nervousness and fearfulness in doing mathematical and numerical tasks.”
After explaining to your readers the meaning, nature, and dynamics (as well as some historical development if you wish to) of the term “mathematical anxiety”, you may now proceed to showing the problem or gap of the study. As you may already know, the research gap is the problem that needs to be addressed in the study. This is important because no research activity is possible without the research gap.
Let us suppose that your research problem or gap is: “Mathematical anxiety can negatively affect not just the academic achievement of the students but also their future career plans and total well-being. Also, there are no known studies that deal with the mathematical anxiety of junior high school students in New Zealand.” With this, you may say:
“If left unchecked, as Shapiro (2019) claims, this problem will expand and create a total avoidance pattern on the part of the students, which can be expressed most visibly in the form of cutting classes and habitual absenteeism. As we can see, this will negatively affect the performance of students in mathematics. In fact, the study conducted by Luttenberger and Wimmer (2018) revealed that the outcomes of mathematical anxiety do not only negatively affect the students’ performance in math-related situations but also their future career as professionals. Without a doubt, therefore, mathematical anxiety is a recurring problem for many individuals which will negatively affect the academic success and future career of the student.”
Now that you already have both explained the meaning, nature, and dynamics of the term “mathematical anxiety” and articulated the gap of your proposed research, you may now state the main goal of your study. You may say:
“Hence, it is precisely in this context that the researcher aims to determine the lived experiences of those students with mathematical anxiety. In particular, this proposed thesis aims to determine the lived experiences of the junior high school students in New Zealand and identify the factors that caused them to become disinterested in mathematics.”
Please note that you should not end the first paragraph of your background of the study with the articulation of the research goal. You also need to articulate the “thesis statement”, which usually comes after the research goal. As is well known, the thesis statement is the statement of your argument or contention in the study. It is more of a personal argument or claim of the researcher, which specifically highlights the possible contribution of the study. For example, you may say:
“The researcher argues that there is a need to determine the lived experiences of these students with mathematical anxiety because knowing and understanding the difficulties and challenges that they have encountered will put the researcher in the best position to offer some alternatives to the problem. Indeed, it is only when we have performed some kind of a ‘diagnosis’ that we can offer practicable solutions to the problem. And in the case of the junior high school students in New Zealand who are having mathematical anxiety, determining their lived experiences as well as identifying the factors that caused them to become disinterested in mathematics are the very first steps in addressing the problem.”
If we combine the bits and pieces that we have written above, we can now come up with the opening paragraphs of your background of the study, which reads:
As we can see, we can find in the first paragraph 5 essential elements that must be articulated in the background of the study, namely:
1) A brief discussion on what is known about the topic under investigation; 2) An articulation of the research gap or problem that needs to be addressed; 3) What the researcher would like to do or aim to achieve in the study (research goal); 4) The thesis statement, that is, the main argument or claim of the paper; and 5) The major significance or contribution of the study to a particular discipline. So, that’s how you write the opening paragraphs of your background of the study. The next lesson will talk about writing the body of the background of the study.
How to Write the Body of the Background of the Study?
If we liken the background of the study to a sitting cat, then the opening paragraphs that we have completed in the previous lesson would just represent the head of the cat.
This means we still have to write the body (body of the cat) and the conclusion (tail). But how do we write the body of the background of the study? What should be its content?
Truly, this is one of the most difficult challenges that fledgling scholars faced. Because they are inexperienced researchers and didn’t know what to do next, they just wrote whatever they wished to write. Fortunately, this is relatively easy if they know the technique.
One of the best ways to write the body of the background of the study is to attack it from the vantage point of the research gap. If you recall, when we articulated the research gap in the opening paragraphs, we made a bold claim there, that is, there are junior high school students in New Zealand who are experiencing mathematical anxiety. Now, you have to remember that a “statement” remains an assumption until you can provide concrete proofs to it. This is what we call the “epistemological” aspect of research. As we may already know, epistemology is a specific branch of philosophy that deals with the validity of knowledge. And to validate knowledge is to provide concrete proofs to our statements. Hence, the reason why we need to provide proofs to our claim that there are indeed junior high school students in New Zealand who are experiencing mathematical anxiety is the obvious fact that if there are none, then we cannot proceed with our study. We have no one to interview with in the first. In short, we don’t have respondents.
The body of the background of the study, therefore, should be a presentation and articulation of the proofs to our claim that indeed there are junior high school students in New Zealand who are experiencing mathematical anxiety. Please note, however, that this idea is true only if you follow the style of writing the background of the study that I introduced in this course.
So, how do we do this?
One of the best ways to do this is to look for literature on mathematical anxiety among junior high school students in New Zealand and cite them here. However, if there are not enough literature on this topic in New Zealand, then we need to conduct initial interviews with these students or make actual classroom observations and record instances of mathematical anxiety among these students. But it is always a good idea if we combine literature review with interviews and actual observations.
Assuming you already have the data, then you may now proceed with the writing of the body of your background of the study. For example, you may say:
“According to records and based on the researcher’s firsthand experience with students in some junior high schools in New Zealand, indeed, there are students who lost interest in mathematics. For one, while checking the daily attendance and monitoring of the students, it was observed that some of them are not always attending classes in mathematics but are regularly attending the rest of the required subjects.”
After this sentence, you may insert some literature that will support this position. For example, you may say:
“As a matter of fact, this phenomenon is also observed in the work of Estonanto. In his study titled ‘Impact of Math Anxiety on Academic Performance in Pre-Calculus of Senior High School’, Estonanto (2019) found out that, inter alia, students with mathematical anxiety have the tendency to intentionally prioritize other subjects and commit habitual tardiness and absences.”
Then you may proceed saying:
“With this initial knowledge in mind, the researcher conducted initial interviews with some of these students. The researcher learned that one student did not regularly attend his math subject because he believed that he is not good in math and no matter how he listens to the topic he will not learn.”
Then you may say:
“Another student also mentioned that she was influenced by her friends’ perception that mathematics is hard; hence, she avoids the subject. Indeed, these are concrete proofs that there are some junior high school students in New Zealand who have mathematical anxiety. As already hinted, “disinterest” or the loss of interest in mathematics is one of the manifestations of a mathematical anxiety.”
If we combine what we have just written above, then we can have the first two paragraphs of the body of our background of the study. It reads:
“According to records and based on the researcher’s firsthand experience with students in some junior high schools in New Zealand, indeed there are students who lost interest in mathematics. For one, while checking the daily attendance and monitoring of the students, it was observed that some of them are not always attending classes in mathematics but are regularly attending the rest of the required subjects. As a matter of fact, this phenomenon is also observed in the work of Estonanto. In his study titled ‘Impact of Math Anxiety on Academic Performance in Pre-Calculus of Senior High School’, Estonanto (2019) found out that, inter alia, students with mathematical anxiety have the tendency to intentionally prioritize other subjects and commit habitual tardiness and absences.
With this initial knowledge in mind, the researcher conducted initial interviews with some of these students. The researcher learned that one student did not regularly attend his math subject because he believed that he is not good in math and no matter how he listens to the topic he will not learn. Another student also mentioned that she was influenced by her friends’ perception that mathematics is hard; hence, she avoids the subject. Indeed, these are concrete proofs that there are some junior high school students in New Zealand who have mathematical anxiety. As already hinted, “disinterest” or the loss of interest in mathematics is one of the manifestations of a mathematical anxiety.”
And then you need validate this observation by conducting another round of interview and observation in other schools. So, you may continue writing the body of the background of the study with this:
“To validate the information gathered from the initial interviews and observations, the researcher conducted another round of interview and observation with other junior high school students in New Zealand.”
“On the one hand, the researcher found out that during mathematics time some students felt uneasy; in fact, they showed a feeling of being tensed or anxious while working with numbers and mathematical problems. Some were even afraid to seat in front, while some students at the back were secretly playing with their mobile phones. These students also show remarkable apprehension during board works like trembling hands, nervous laughter, and the like.”
Then provide some literature that will support your position. You may say:
“As Finlayson (2017) corroborates, emotional symptoms of mathematical anxiety involve feeling of helplessness, lack of confidence, and being nervous for being put on the spot. It must be noted that these occasionally extreme emotional reactions are not triggered by provocative procedures. As a matter of fact, there are no personally sensitive questions or intentional manipulations of stress. The teacher simply asked a very simple question, like identifying the parts of a circle. Certainly, this observation also conforms with the study of Ashcraft (2016) when he mentions that students with mathematical anxiety show a negative attitude towards math and hold self-perceptions about their mathematical abilities.”
And then you proceed:
“On the other hand, when the class had their other subjects, the students show a feeling of excitement. They even hurried to seat in front and attentively participating in the class discussion without hesitation and without the feeling of being tensed or anxious. For sure, this is another concrete proof that there are junior high school students in New Zealand who have mathematical anxiety.”
To further prove the point that there indeed junior high school students in New Zealand who have mathematical anxiety, you may solicit observations from other math teachers. For instance, you may say:
“The researcher further verified if the problem is also happening in other sections and whether other mathematics teachers experienced the same observation that the researcher had. This validation or verification is important in establishing credibility of the claim (Buchbinder, 2016) and ensuring reliability and validity of the assertion (Morse et al., 2002). In this regard, the researcher attempted to open up the issue of math anxiety during the Departmentalized Learning Action Cell (LAC), a group discussion of educators per quarter, with the objective of ‘Teaching Strategies to Develop Critical Thinking of the Students’. During the session, one teacher corroborates the researcher’s observation that there are indeed junior high school students in New Zealand who have mathematical anxiety. The teacher pointed out that truly there were students who showed no extra effort in mathematics class in addition to the fact that some students really avoided the subject. In addition, another math teacher expressed her frustrations about these students who have mathematical anxiety. She quipped: “How can a teacher develop the critical thinking skills or ability of the students if in the first place these students show avoidance and disinterest in the subject?’.”
Again, if we combine what we have just written above, then we can now have the remaining parts of the body of the background of the study. It reads:
So, that’s how we write the body of the background of the study in research. Of course, you may add any relevant points which you think might amplify your content. What is important at this point is that you now have a clear idea of how to write the body of the background of the study.
How to Write the Concluding Part of the Background of the Study?
Since we have already completed the body of our background of the study in the previous lesson, we may now write the concluding paragraph (the tail of the cat). This is important because one of the rules of thumb in writing is that we always put a close to what we have started.
It is important to note that the conclusion of the background of the study is just a rehashing of the research gap and main goal of the study stated in the introductory paragraph, but framed differently. The purpose of this is just to emphasize, after presenting the justifications, what the study aims to attain and why it wants to do it. The conclusion, therefore, will look just like this:
“Given the above discussion, it is evident that there are indeed junior high school students in New Zealand who are experiencing mathematical anxiety. And as we can see, mathematical anxiety can negatively affect not just the academic achievement of the students but also their future career plans and total well-being. Again, it is for this reason that the researcher attempts to determine the lived experiences of those junior high school students in New Zealand who are experiencing a mathematical anxiety.”
If we combine all that we have written from the very beginning, the entire background of the study would now read:
If we analyze the background of the study that we have just completed, we can observe that in addition to the important elements that it should contain, it has also addressed other important elements that readers or thesis committee members expect from it.
On the one hand, it provides the researcher with a clear direction in the conduct of the study. As we can see, the background of the study that we have just completed enables us to move in the right direction with a strong focus as it has set clear goals and the reasons why we want to do it. Indeed, we now exactly know what to do next and how to write the rest of the research paper or thesis.
On the other hand, most researchers start their research with scattered ideas and usually get stuck with how to proceed further. But with a well-written background of the study, just as the one above, we have decluttered and organized our thoughts. We have also become aware of what have and have not been done in our area of study, as well as what we can significantly contribute in the already existing body of knowledge in this area of study.
Please note, however, as I already mentioned previously, that the model that I have just presented is only one of the many models available in textbooks and other sources. You are, of course, free to choose your own style of writing the background of the study. You may also consult your thesis supervisor for some guidance on how to attack the writing of your background of the study.
Lastly, and as you may already know, universities around the world have their own thesis formats. Hence, you should follow your university’s rules on the format and style in writing your research or thesis. What is important is that with the lessons that you learned in this course, you can now easily write the introductory part of your thesis, such as the background of the study.
Research design refers to the overall plan and strategy for conducting a research study. It outlines the specific methods and procedures that will be used to collect and analyze data, as well as the rationale behind these choices. Research design is an essential component of the research process, as it ensures that the study is conducted in a systematic and rigorous manner, and that the findings are reliable and valid.
There are several key characteristics of research design that are essential for any study to be considered well-designed and rigorous. These include:
Clarity of research question: The research question should be clear and well-defined, and should provide a clear direction for the study. The research question should be specific enough to guide the selection of appropriate research methods and procedures, and should be relevant to the research field.
1. Appropriateness of research methods: The research methods used should be appropriate for the research question and objectives, and should be selected based on the strengths and weaknesses of each method. The methods chosen should be capable of producing reliable and valid data that can be used to answer the research question.
2. Sampling design: The sampling design should be appropriate for the research question and objectives, and should be representative of the population being studied. The sample size should be large enough to ensure statistical power, and should be selected using appropriate sampling techniques.
3. Data collection procedures: The data collection procedures should be appropriate for the research question and objectives, and should be designed to minimize bias and maximize accuracy. The procedures should be standardized to ensure consistency across participants and data collectors.
4. Data analysis procedures: The data analysis procedures should be appropriate for the research question and objectives, and should be designed to answer the research question. The procedures should be rigorous and transparent, and should be able to withstand scrutiny from other researchers.
5. Ethical considerations: The research design should take into account ethical considerations, including informed consent, privacy, and confidentiality. The study should be designed to minimize any potential harm or discomfort to participants, and should adhere to relevant ethical guidelines and regulations.
There are several different types of research design, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. Some of the most common types of research design include:
1. Experimental design: This type of research design involves manipulating one or more variables to determine their effect on an outcome. Experimental designs are often used to test causal hypotheses, and are characterized by random assignment of participants to conditions.
2. Quasi-experimental design: This type of research design is similar to experimental design, but does not involve random assignment of participants to conditions. Quasi-experimental designs are often used when random assignment is not possible, such as when studying naturally occurring groups.
3. Correlational design: This type of research design involves measuring the degree of association between two or more variables. Correlational designs are often used to examine relationships between variables that cannot be manipulated.
4. Survey design: This type of research design involves collecting data through questionnaires or interviews. Survey designs are often used to collect large amounts of data from a representative sample of the population.
5. Case study design: This type of research design involves studying a single individual or group in depth. Case studies are often used to gain insight into complex phenomena, and are characterized by detailed data collection and analysis.
Overall, research design is a critical component of the research process, and should be carefully considered and planned in order to ensure that the study is conducted in a rigorous and systematic manner. By choosing appropriate research methods and procedures, and designing the study to minimize bias and maximize accuracy, researchers can produce reliable and valid findings that contribute to our understanding of the world.
One of the common mistakes fledgling researchers commit is collapsing the terms “research method” and “research methodology” together. In other words, some scholars confused research method with research methodology. Of course, the two are not the same, and understanding their difference is of paramount importance in research as it does not only show that we, as researchers, have a strong grasp of the basics in research but it also helps us come up with a proper research design.
On the one hand, a research method is the logic of how a scholar arrives at a valid and reliable knowledge. In other words, a research method is the strategy employed in the collection of data or evidence for analysis to uncover new information or arrive at a better understanding of a particular topic. So, a research method is the tool used in carrying out the research. For example, a researcher may employ a qualitative research method in determining the lived experiences of Libyan nurses assigned during wartime.
Research methodology, on the other hand, is the justification for using a particular research method. In other words, a research methodology is the “plan” that explains why, as in the example above, a qualitative research method is employed in determining the lived experiences of Libyan nurses assigned during wartime.
The research methodology, therefore, is the theoretical positioning of the research, while research method is the “doing” of the research itself. The former, therefore, is viewed as the body of knowledge which attempts to explain or understand how a research is done, while the latter refers to the specific process or steps that the researcher may follow in undertaking the study.
Let us use the simple analogy of “constructing a building” to explain the difference between these two terms. Research methodology is the “construction plan” itself, while research method is the “actual” construction of the building, which includes the tools and other materials needed for the construction of the building. This explains why in the actual thesis or thesis proposal, a chapter on data gathering process is commonly titled “Research Methodology” as it contains the entire plan in collecting and analyzing data, while the body of this chapter contains the specificity of the research method, such as using interviews or surveys in data gathering.
In this article, we will discuss the meaning, characteristics, and types of research methods.
Meaning of Research Method:
Research method is the systematic and scientific approach used to conduct research. It is a set of procedures used to collect and analyze data in order to generate new knowledge or to answer specific research questions. The research method involves the following steps:
1. Defining the research problem: This is the first step in the research method. It involves identifying a problem that needs to be investigated or a question that needs to be answered.
2. Formulating the research question: This step involves developing a research question or hypothesis that will guide the research.
3. Designing the research study: This step involves deciding on the research design, data collection methods, and analysis techniques.
4. Collecting data: This step involves gathering data using the selected data collection methods.
5. Analyzing data: This step involves using statistical analysis or other techniques to analyze the data.
6. Drawing conclusions: This step involves interpreting the data and drawing conclusions based on the findings.
Characteristics of Research Method:
1. Systematic: Research method involves a systematic approach to data collection and analysis. The researcher follows a set of procedures that are designed to ensure that the data collected is valid and reliable.
2. Objective: Research method is an objective process. The researcher attempts to collect data that is unbiased and free from personal opinion or bias.
3. Empirical: Research method is an empirical process. It is based on observations and data that can be measured and analyzed.
4. Replicable: Research method is a replicable process. Other researchers should be able to replicate the study using the same procedures and methods.
5. Quantifiable: Research method involves the collection of data that can be quantified and analyzed using statistical methods.
6. Logical: Research method involves the use of logical reasoning and analysis to draw conclusions based on the data collected.
Types of Research Method:
There are two main types of research methods: qualitative research and quantitative research.
Qualitative research: Qualitative research is a research method that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as interviews, observations, and case studies. The goal of qualitative research is to understand the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals.
Qualitative research is typically used in fields such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, and education. Qualitative research involves the following characteristics:
1. Focuses on the subjective experiences of individuals.
2. Collects non-numerical data such as interviews, observations, and case studies.
3. Uses qualitative analysis techniques to analyze the data.
4. Does not use statistical analysis.
5. Seeks to understand complex phenomena in a holistic way.
Quantitative research: Quantitative research is a research method that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data. The goal of quantitative research is to test hypotheses and to draw conclusions based on statistical analysis.
Quantitative research is typically used in fields such as medicine, economics, and psychology. Quantitative research involves the following characteristics:
1. Focuses on numerical data.
2. Collects data using standardized procedures.
3. Uses statistical analysis techniques to analyze the data.
4. Seeks to generalize findings to a larger population.
5. Tests hypotheses using statistical methods.
In conclusion, research method is a crucial tool for generating new knowledge and answering research questions in a systematic and scientific manner. It involves a series of steps, including defining the research problem, formulating the research question, designing the research study, collecting data, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. Research method is characterized by its systematic, objective, empirical, replicable, quantifiable, and logical approach to data collection and analysis. These characteristics ensure that the research is valid, reliable, and free from personal bias or opinion. There are two main types of research methods: qualitative research and quantitative research. Qualitative research focuses on understanding the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. Quantitative research, on the other hand, focuses on testing hypotheses and drawing conclusions based on statistical analysis of numerical data. Ultimately, the use of research method allows researchers to gather and analyze data in a rigorous and structured manner, leading to the production of new knowledge that can be used to inform decisions and policies in various fields.
Qualitative research is an approach to research that focuses on understanding the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals and groups. It is a method of inquiry that is used in many different fields, including sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research is concerned with exploring and interpreting the meanings that people attach to their experiences and behaviors.
The main aim of qualitative research is to gain a deep understanding of the social or cultural phenomenon under investigation, and to do so in a way that is sensitive to the unique perspectives of those involved. This often involves collecting data through a variety of methods, including interviews, focus group discussions, observations, and document analysis.
One of the key features of qualitative research is its emphasis on the researcher’s role in the research process. Qualitative researchers acknowledge that their own biases and perspectives can influence the data they collect and the analysis they conduct. As such, they strive to be reflexive and transparent about their own positionality, and to engage in ongoing critical reflection throughout the research process.
Another important feature of qualitative research is its flexibility. Qualitative researchers are open to adjusting their research questions, methods, and analysis as they gather new information and insights. This allows them to be responsive to the unique features of the research context, and to develop a rich and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation.
Qualitative research often involves collecting data through in-depth interviews with participants. These interviews are typically semi-structured, meaning that the researcher has a set of broad questions to guide the conversation, but is also able to follow up on interesting or unexpected responses. The goal of these interviews is to gather detailed information about the participant’s experiences, perspectives, and behaviors, and to do so in a way that allows them to share their views in their own words.
Another common method used in qualitative research is participant observation. This involves the researcher immersing themselves in the social or cultural context being studied, and observing the behavior and interactions of the people involved. This approach allows the researcher to gain an insider’s perspective on the phenomenon under investigation, and to observe how people interact with each other and their environment in real time.
Focus groups are another method often used in qualitative research. Focus groups involve bringing together a small group of participants to discuss a specific topic or issue. The researcher typically acts as a facilitator, guiding the conversation and encouraging participants to share their thoughts and opinions. This approach can be useful for exploring group dynamics and social norms, and for identifying common themes and perspectives across a group of people.
Document analysis is another method commonly used in qualitative research. This involves analyzing documents such as texts, images, or videos to gain insights into the social or cultural phenomenon under investigation. This approach can be particularly useful for studying historical or archival materials, or for analyzing media representations of a particular issue.
Once data has been collected, qualitative researchers engage in a process of analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data. This often involves a process of coding, where the researcher systematically identifies and categorizes different types of data based on their meaning or significance. These codes are then grouped together into broader themes or categories, which are used to develop a deeper understanding of the phenomenon under investigation.
One of the strengths of qualitative research is its ability to generate rich and detailed descriptions of social and cultural phenomena. By focusing on the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals and groups, qualitative research can provide insights into the complexity and nuance of human behavior and social interactions.
However, one of the criticisms of qualitative research is that it can be difficult to generalize findings to larger populations. Because qualitative research typically involves small samples and in-depth analysis of specific contexts, it can be difficult to draw broader conclusions about the social or cultural phenomenon being studied.
In conclusion, qualitative research is an important approach to research that allows for a deep and nuanced understanding of social and cultural phenomena. By focusing on the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals and groups, qualitative research can reveal insights that would be missed by other methods.
One of the key strengths of qualitative research is its flexibility. Qualitative researchers are open to adjusting their research questions, methods, and analysis as they gather new information and insights, allowing them to be responsive to the unique features of the research context.
Another strength of qualitative research is its emphasis on the researcher’s role in the research process. Qualitative researchers acknowledge that their own biases and perspectives can influence the data they collect and the analysis they conduct, and strive to be reflexive and transparent about their positionality.
Despite its many strengths, qualitative research does have some limitations. It can be difficult to generalize findings to larger populations, and the in-depth analysis of specific contexts may not be applicable to other settings.
Overall, qualitative research is a valuable approach to research that provides a rich and detailed understanding of social and cultural phenomena. When used in conjunction with other methods, it can provide a more complete picture of the complex and multifaceted nature of human behavior and interactions.
Types of Qualitative Research Methodor Design
Some of the common types of qualitative research methods or designs are the following:
1) historical research design,
2) archival research design,
3) oral history research design,
4) ethnolinguistic research design,
5) case study,
6) process documentation research design,
7) ethnographic research design, and
8) naturalistic research design.
Let me briefly discuss the meaning, nature and dynamics of these types of qualitative research designs.
Historical Research Design
Recent trends in historical research in education include seeing education as broader than schooling, viewing school systems in the context of social and economic development, and studying the history of elite intentions and actions. Historical research methods in education make possible the making of broader generalizations about the past, of judgments about its relation to the present, and of predictions about the future.
Examples of historical studies in education include the examination of length of schooling among different social groups by calculating the school-entry and school-leaving ages of different students in sample years, patterns of school attendance, years of schooling, and school expenditures, the different experiences of different social groups, and the impact of schooling on later life in different historical periods.
There is also a need for historical research on popular attitudes, quality of educational experience in the past, and intellectual and institutional history of education.
Archival Research Design
Primary sources of information concerning Philippine history are found in different archives in the Philippines and abroad. Archival research enables a historian to uncover ever new reinterpretations of historical reality.
Oral History Research Design
This is a form of historical activity, a first-hand reminiscence of historical events through the intervention of the historian. It records, for posterity, intimate primary knowledge and experience of individuals prominent in various fields, or those in positions of authority about certain topics, institutions, or about their own lives. This type of research method involves tape recording interview, transcribing them into typescripts, and checking for accuracy by the interviewer and the interviewee.
Ethnolinguistic Research Design
This is a research method which use language in the study of human groups. It deals with description of an ethnic group using linguistic tool. It is a tool for studying changes in meanings, beliefs, values, and codes, that is, the collective conscious and unconscious mind of a human group. According to some scholars, ethnolinguistic research method suggests studies to infer something about the culture and the life of the early ethnic group based on the memoirs of the early ethnographers and the grammar, observations, doctrines, and accounts of apostolic work by the early missionaries.
Case Study Research Design
A case study is a thick description of the interpretation, explanation, understanding, and prediction of an individual, group, or phenomenon obtained through in-depth investigation of the focus of interest.
Types of Case Study
Ethnographic case study which involves single in-depth study, usually through participant observation and interview.
Action research case study which focuses on bringing about change in the case under study.
Evaluative case study which involves the evaluation of programs.
Educational case study which is designed to enhance understanding of education actions.
Process Documentation Research
This is a useful tool for evolving a program based on a new intervention strategy. An example of this research method is the intervention strategy employed by the National Irrigation Agency (government agency in-charge of developing and assisting national and communal irrigation systems in the Philippines) whereby farmers got involved in the planning, design, and construction of their communal irrigation system. This resulted in the development or strengthening of the skills and structures of farmers’ association for system operations and maintenance.
Ethnographic Research Design
This research method is grounded on anthropology. Data are gathered through unstructured interviews, participant observation, and field notes. Other sources of data include the use of documents, records, photography, maps, genealogies, and social network diagrams. Research questions in ethnographic research method are descriptive in nature. This includes questions on values, beliefs, and practices of a cultural group.
Ethnographic research method involves describing and interpreting events that occur within the life of a group, with special attention to social structures and behaviors of individuals with respect to group membership. They are particularly appropriate for empirical research on a school, classroom, family, social organizations, or ethnic communities.
Naturalistic Research Design
Naturalistic inquiry is a more general term for ethnography, sociological field methods, case study methods, participant observation, ecological psychology, and psychodynamic social psychology. It involves extensive study of a case (for example, a group, institutions, communities, programs, and social systems) over an extended period of time. Points of interest here include not only the case itself, but also the ecology, context, or milieu in which it exists. And the researcher exposes herself directly with the case and is solely responsible for gathering and interpreting data.
Unlike experimental studies, naturalistic inquiry does not introduce any intervention, but instead studies the natural occurrence of events where they are found. Furthermore, the meaning of the constructs or ideas to be studied is not arbitrarily fixed or operationalized in advance of data collection. Instead, the researcher attempts to elicit the multiple meanings about those ideas that are upheld by each person. Similarly, hypotheses are neither derived from theory nor stated in advance. Rather, explanations about the relationships among variables come from the data rather than from preexisting theories.
Data collection in naturalistic inquiry typically centers on in-depth, open-ended interviews, direct observations, examination of documents, and community studies. Quantitative data are not avoided. During data collection, copious notes are kept, including verbatim accounts of what was observed and the responses of the interviewees. Interpretation and analysis of data are done as soon as data collection began.
It is important to note that the report of the naturalistic inquiry does not rely on statistics, graphs, or abstract models, but on the language familiar to the reader and the images that evoke readers’ association. What are important here are the precise use of language, rich description, and clear presentation of ideas to produce vicarious experiences for readers who could not be there themselves.
Criteria in doing Naturalistic Research
Scholars listed eight criteria that should be observed in naturalistic research, namely:
1) duration,
2) scope,
3) ethics,
4) logic,
5) verification,
6) stance of the researcher,
7) writing, and
8) contribution to knowledge
The researcher should be in direct contact with the case sufficiently enough to become thoroughly familiar with all its aspects and context (duration). The case study should be studies extensively (scope). The researcher should maintain the confidentiality and protection of the site and the informants (ethics). There should be an internal logical fit between the data in the data record and the ideas or analysis that purports to come from them (verification). The researcher should maintain dispassionate distance from the case, or at least clearly identify their prejudices (stance of the researcher). The report should have been written effectively and provide a pleasing piece of writing (writing). Lastly, it should contribute to knowledge regarding psychological and social ideas that the information yields (contribution to knowledge).
Limitations of Naturalistic Inquiry
Scholars listed some limitations of the naturalistic inquiry. For one, naturalistic inquiry is labor intensive because it requires prolonged exposure to the case. The researcher’s biases or prejudices may also influence the outcome of the study. Furthermore, a researcher with a low level of energy or intellectual ability might miss subtle but significant patterns of behaviors or events. And lastly, establishing causality and generalizing results are not possible with this research.
