In this article, we will discuss the meaning, characteristics, and types of research methods.
Meaning of Research Method:
Research method is the systematic and scientific approach used to conduct research. It is a set of procedures used to collect and analyze data in order to generate new knowledge or to answer specific research questions. The research method involves the following steps:
1. Defining the research problem: This is the first step in the research method. It involves identifying a problem that needs to be investigated or a question that needs to be answered.
2. Formulating the research question: This step involves developing a research question or hypothesis that will guide the research.
3. Designing the research study: This step involves deciding on the research design, data collection methods, and analysis techniques.
4. Collecting data: This step involves gathering data using the selected data collection methods.
5. Analyzing data: This step involves using statistical analysis or other techniques to analyze the data.
6. Drawing conclusions: This step involves interpreting the data and drawing conclusions based on the findings.
Characteristics of Research Method:
1. Systematic: Research method involves a systematic approach to data collection and analysis. The researcher follows a set of procedures that are designed to ensure that the data collected is valid and reliable.
2. Objective: Research method is an objective process. The researcher attempts to collect data that is unbiased and free from personal opinion or bias.
3. Empirical: Research method is an empirical process. It is based on observations and data that can be measured and analyzed.
4. Replicable: Research method is a replicable process. Other researchers should be able to replicate the study using the same procedures and methods.
5. Quantifiable: Research method involves the collection of data that can be quantified and analyzed using statistical methods.
6. Logical: Research method involves the use of logical reasoning and analysis to draw conclusions based on the data collected.
Types of Research Method:
There are two main types of research methods: qualitative research and quantitative research.
Qualitative research: Qualitative research is a research method that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as interviews, observations, and case studies. The goal of qualitative research is to understand the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals.
Qualitative research is typically used in fields such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, and education. Qualitative research involves the following characteristics:
1. Focuses on the subjective experiences of individuals.
2. Collects non-numerical data such as interviews, observations, and case studies.
3. Uses qualitative analysis techniques to analyze the data.
4. Does not use statistical analysis.
5. Seeks to understand complex phenomena in a holistic way.
Quantitative research: Quantitative research is a research method that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data. The goal of quantitative research is to test hypotheses and to draw conclusions based on statistical analysis.
Quantitative research is typically used in fields such as medicine, economics, and psychology. Quantitative research involves the following characteristics:
1. Focuses on numerical data.
2. Collects data using standardized procedures.
3. Uses statistical analysis techniques to analyze the data.
4. Seeks to generalize findings to a larger population.
5. Tests hypotheses using statistical methods.
In conclusion, research method is a crucial tool for generating new knowledge and answering research questions in a systematic and scientific manner. It involves a series of steps, including defining the research problem, formulating the research question, designing the research study, collecting data, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. Research method is characterized by its systematic, objective, empirical, replicable, quantifiable, and logical approach to data collection and analysis. These characteristics ensure that the research is valid, reliable, and free from personal bias or opinion. There are two main types of research methods: qualitative research and quantitative research. Qualitative research focuses on understanding the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. Quantitative research, on the other hand, focuses on testing hypotheses and drawing conclusions based on statistical analysis of numerical data. Ultimately, the use of research method allows researchers to gather and analyze data in a rigorous and structured manner, leading to the production of new knowledge that can be used to inform decisions and policies in various fields.
Qualitative research is an approach to research that focuses on understanding the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals and groups. It is a method of inquiry that is used in many different fields, including sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research is concerned with exploring and interpreting the meanings that people attach to their experiences and behaviors.
The main aim of qualitative research is to gain a deep understanding of the social or cultural phenomenon under investigation, and to do so in a way that is sensitive to the unique perspectives of those involved. This often involves collecting data through a variety of methods, including interviews, focus group discussions, observations, and document analysis.
One of the key features of qualitative research is its emphasis on the researcher’s role in the research process. Qualitative researchers acknowledge that their own biases and perspectives can influence the data they collect and the analysis they conduct. As such, they strive to be reflexive and transparent about their own positionality, and to engage in ongoing critical reflection throughout the research process.
Another important feature of qualitative research is its flexibility. Qualitative researchers are open to adjusting their research questions, methods, and analysis as they gather new information and insights. This allows them to be responsive to the unique features of the research context, and to develop a rich and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation.
Qualitative research often involves collecting data through in-depth interviews with participants. These interviews are typically semi-structured, meaning that the researcher has a set of broad questions to guide the conversation, but is also able to follow up on interesting or unexpected responses. The goal of these interviews is to gather detailed information about the participant’s experiences, perspectives, and behaviors, and to do so in a way that allows them to share their views in their own words.
Another common method used in qualitative research is participant observation. This involves the researcher immersing themselves in the social or cultural context being studied, and observing the behavior and interactions of the people involved. This approach allows the researcher to gain an insider’s perspective on the phenomenon under investigation, and to observe how people interact with each other and their environment in real time.
Focus groups are another method often used in qualitative research. Focus groups involve bringing together a small group of participants to discuss a specific topic or issue. The researcher typically acts as a facilitator, guiding the conversation and encouraging participants to share their thoughts and opinions. This approach can be useful for exploring group dynamics and social norms, and for identifying common themes and perspectives across a group of people.
Document analysis is another method commonly used in qualitative research. This involves analyzing documents such as texts, images, or videos to gain insights into the social or cultural phenomenon under investigation. This approach can be particularly useful for studying historical or archival materials, or for analyzing media representations of a particular issue.
Once data has been collected, qualitative researchers engage in a process of analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data. This often involves a process of coding, where the researcher systematically identifies and categorizes different types of data based on their meaning or significance. These codes are then grouped together into broader themes or categories, which are used to develop a deeper understanding of the phenomenon under investigation.
One of the strengths of qualitative research is its ability to generate rich and detailed descriptions of social and cultural phenomena. By focusing on the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals and groups, qualitative research can provide insights into the complexity and nuance of human behavior and social interactions.
However, one of the criticisms of qualitative research is that it can be difficult to generalize findings to larger populations. Because qualitative research typically involves small samples and in-depth analysis of specific contexts, it can be difficult to draw broader conclusions about the social or cultural phenomenon being studied.
In conclusion, qualitative research is an important approach to research that allows for a deep and nuanced understanding of social and cultural phenomena. By focusing on the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals and groups, qualitative research can reveal insights that would be missed by other methods.
One of the key strengths of qualitative research is its flexibility. Qualitative researchers are open to adjusting their research questions, methods, and analysis as they gather new information and insights, allowing them to be responsive to the unique features of the research context.
Another strength of qualitative research is its emphasis on the researcher’s role in the research process. Qualitative researchers acknowledge that their own biases and perspectives can influence the data they collect and the analysis they conduct, and strive to be reflexive and transparent about their positionality.
Despite its many strengths, qualitative research does have some limitations. It can be difficult to generalize findings to larger populations, and the in-depth analysis of specific contexts may not be applicable to other settings.
Overall, qualitative research is a valuable approach to research that provides a rich and detailed understanding of social and cultural phenomena. When used in conjunction with other methods, it can provide a more complete picture of the complex and multifaceted nature of human behavior and interactions.
Types of Qualitative Research Methodor Design
Some of the common types of qualitative research methods or designs are the following:
1) historical research design,
2) archival research design,
3) oral history research design,
4) ethnolinguistic research design,
5) case study,
6) process documentation research design,
7) ethnographic research design, and
8) naturalistic research design.
Let me briefly discuss the meaning, nature and dynamics of these types of qualitative research designs.
Historical Research Design
Recent trends in historical research in education include seeing education as broader than schooling, viewing school systems in the context of social and economic development, and studying the history of elite intentions and actions. Historical research methods in education make possible the making of broader generalizations about the past, of judgments about its relation to the present, and of predictions about the future.
Examples of historical studies in education include the examination of length of schooling among different social groups by calculating the school-entry and school-leaving ages of different students in sample years, patterns of school attendance, years of schooling, and school expenditures, the different experiences of different social groups, and the impact of schooling on later life in different historical periods.
There is also a need for historical research on popular attitudes, quality of educational experience in the past, and intellectual and institutional history of education.
Archival Research Design
Primary sources of information concerning Philippine history are found in different archives in the Philippines and abroad. Archival research enables a historian to uncover ever new reinterpretations of historical reality.
Oral History Research Design
This is a form of historical activity, a first-hand reminiscence of historical events through the intervention of the historian. It records, for posterity, intimate primary knowledge and experience of individuals prominent in various fields, or those in positions of authority about certain topics, institutions, or about their own lives. This type of research method involves tape recording interview, transcribing them into typescripts, and checking for accuracy by the interviewer and the interviewee.
Ethnolinguistic Research Design
This is a research method which use language in the study of human groups. It deals with description of an ethnic group using linguistic tool. It is a tool for studying changes in meanings, beliefs, values, and codes, that is, the collective conscious and unconscious mind of a human group. According to some scholars, ethnolinguistic research method suggests studies to infer something about the culture and the life of the early ethnic group based on the memoirs of the early ethnographers and the grammar, observations, doctrines, and accounts of apostolic work by the early missionaries.
Case Study Research Design
A case study is a thick description of the interpretation, explanation, understanding, and prediction of an individual, group, or phenomenon obtained through in-depth investigation of the focus of interest.
Types of Case Study
Ethnographic case study which involves single in-depth study, usually through participant observation and interview.
Action research case study which focuses on bringing about change in the case under study.
Evaluative case study which involves the evaluation of programs.
Educational case study which is designed to enhance understanding of education actions.
Process Documentation Research
This is a useful tool for evolving a program based on a new intervention strategy. An example of this research method is the intervention strategy employed by the National Irrigation Agency (government agency in-charge of developing and assisting national and communal irrigation systems in the Philippines) whereby farmers got involved in the planning, design, and construction of their communal irrigation system. This resulted in the development or strengthening of the skills and structures of farmers’ association for system operations and maintenance.
Ethnographic Research Design
This research method is grounded on anthropology. Data are gathered through unstructured interviews, participant observation, and field notes. Other sources of data include the use of documents, records, photography, maps, genealogies, and social network diagrams. Research questions in ethnographic research method are descriptive in nature. This includes questions on values, beliefs, and practices of a cultural group.
Ethnographic research method involves describing and interpreting events that occur within the life of a group, with special attention to social structures and behaviors of individuals with respect to group membership. They are particularly appropriate for empirical research on a school, classroom, family, social organizations, or ethnic communities.
Naturalistic Research Design
Naturalistic inquiry is a more general term for ethnography, sociological field methods, case study methods, participant observation, ecological psychology, and psychodynamic social psychology. It involves extensive study of a case (for example, a group, institutions, communities, programs, and social systems) over an extended period of time. Points of interest here include not only the case itself, but also the ecology, context, or milieu in which it exists. And the researcher exposes herself directly with the case and is solely responsible for gathering and interpreting data.
Unlike experimental studies, naturalistic inquiry does not introduce any intervention, but instead studies the natural occurrence of events where they are found. Furthermore, the meaning of the constructs or ideas to be studied is not arbitrarily fixed or operationalized in advance of data collection. Instead, the researcher attempts to elicit the multiple meanings about those ideas that are upheld by each person. Similarly, hypotheses are neither derived from theory nor stated in advance. Rather, explanations about the relationships among variables come from the data rather than from preexisting theories.
Data collection in naturalistic inquiry typically centers on in-depth, open-ended interviews, direct observations, examination of documents, and community studies. Quantitative data are not avoided. During data collection, copious notes are kept, including verbatim accounts of what was observed and the responses of the interviewees. Interpretation and analysis of data are done as soon as data collection began.
It is important to note that the report of the naturalistic inquiry does not rely on statistics, graphs, or abstract models, but on the language familiar to the reader and the images that evoke readers’ association. What are important here are the precise use of language, rich description, and clear presentation of ideas to produce vicarious experiences for readers who could not be there themselves.
Criteria in doing Naturalistic Research
Scholars listed eight criteria that should be observed in naturalistic research, namely:
1) duration,
2) scope,
3) ethics,
4) logic,
5) verification,
6) stance of the researcher,
7) writing, and
8) contribution to knowledge
The researcher should be in direct contact with the case sufficiently enough to become thoroughly familiar with all its aspects and context (duration). The case study should be studies extensively (scope). The researcher should maintain the confidentiality and protection of the site and the informants (ethics). There should be an internal logical fit between the data in the data record and the ideas or analysis that purports to come from them (verification). The researcher should maintain dispassionate distance from the case, or at least clearly identify their prejudices (stance of the researcher). The report should have been written effectively and provide a pleasing piece of writing (writing). Lastly, it should contribute to knowledge regarding psychological and social ideas that the information yields (contribution to knowledge).
Limitations of Naturalistic Inquiry
Scholars listed some limitations of the naturalistic inquiry. For one, naturalistic inquiry is labor intensive because it requires prolonged exposure to the case. The researcher’s biases or prejudices may also influence the outcome of the study. Furthermore, a researcher with a low level of energy or intellectual ability might miss subtle but significant patterns of behaviors or events. And lastly, establishing causality and generalizing results are not possible with this research.
The research plan, which is also called “research proposal” before acceptance by competent authority, is a scholarly paper. As is well-known, it must conform to accepted conventions of academic and scientific procedure. It is expected to show evidence of intelligent grasp of the problem being proposed for solution, and fields related to it. It must also present appropriate and valid method and procedure for the solution of the problem.
Allowing for certain variations due to preferences of scholars, disciplines, and institutions, a research plan generally contains the following:
1) The title of the personal study,
2) Statement of the problem,
3) Review of related literature, and
4) Scope and limitation of the study,
5) Importance or significance of the study,
6) Definition of terms, and theoretical framework,
7) Methods and procedure,
8) Bibliography.
The Title
The title of the research plan should be brief but descriptive and comprehensive. The title should also be an adequate index to the key contents of the following: 1) the statement of the problem, 2) the method(s) used, and 3) the expected or hypothetical conclusion(s).
Although it is the first to appear on the research plan, it can remain tentative until the problem and methodology have been clearly formulated. (See also W. C. Campbell & S. V. Ballou, Form and Style: Theses, Reports, Term Papers, 4th ed., Boston, USA: Houghton Miffin, 1974, p. 15).
The Statement of the Problem
The statement of the problem is the part of the research plan, which contains two parts, namely: 1) a careful exposition of an area involving significant problems, and how such problems affect knowledge in the given discipline, and 2) a clear and concise statement of the problem. The first is an essay that demonstrates the researcher’s intelligent and broad grasp of the key problem currently confronting her discipline. The second is a clear statement of the question(s) to be answered or hypothesis to be tested.
The statement of the problem in experimental research is usually in the form of a hypothesis or a series of related hypotheses which call for proof or disproof. Other types of research require that the problem be stated categorically in the form of a question or series of related questions. In case a question needs further specification by means of sub-questions, care is to be taken that the sub-questions are all comprehended by the primary question. Multiple questions and questions which add new problems not expressed or implied in the primary question must be avoided. (See Campbell & Ballou, p. 18).
It must be remembered that the statement of the problem is not the same with the statement of the purpose of the study. The first is the question to be answered, while the second is the reason for answering the question.
A good statement of the problem must be consistent with the title and the methods and procedure to be used in the research.
Review of Related Literature
It is assumed that before the researcher starts making the research plan, she has read many important works related to the proposed study. The aims of the review of related literature are:
1) to show that the researcher is familiar with key ideas in his field of study;
2) to show that the knowledge in the field is incomplete, unreliable, or both; and
3) to show that the findings of the proposed study will: a) add to, b) supplement,
and/or c) correct present knowledge.
The tone and tenor of the review of related literature are both expository and evaluative or critical.
The materials subject to review under this heading are both published and unpublished materials containing anything that have some pertinence to the proposed subject of study. These include books, periodicals, documents, theses, dissertations, and all papers that are conventionally regarded among scholars as disciplinary literature. This explains why it is redundant to say “literature and studies” because the term “literature” includes all studies, which are on record and reported.
Scope and Limitation of the Study
The scope of the study refers to the
1) specific source(s) of information, and
2) time involved in the study.
Since the scope of the study directly affect the validity of the conclusion derived from it, it may be assumed that a study that has no specifically defined scope and limitation of sources and time cannot lead to a definite and valid generalization and/or conclusion.
The limitation of the study refers to shortcoming or source of weakness of the study. The honest researcher must admit the weakness or limitation of any aspect of her investigation or her tools of investigation, and source of information. This fundamental rule is required by intellectual honesty. For example, using translation as reference due to one’s lack of proficiency in the original language of the source is a limitation of the investigator. Limitations that are so great as to cause doubt concerning the validity or conclusion of the study invalidate a research plan.
Significance of the Study
The significance of the study is generally of two kinds, namely, 1) the significance of the expected findings of the study to the specific discipline to which the study belongs, and 2) the benefit that human world may derive from the findings. Evidence of significance on the first level is generally sufficient. Significance of the second level if not discreetly put tends to be pretentious and violates the modesty generally expected of scholars. It is, therefore, generally best to convince the reader that the answer(s) one is trying to discover are important mainly to one’s line of study, and leave the “earth-shaking” value of the study understated or implied.
Research on the graduate school level is expected to show evidence of 1) mastery of scientific and rational methods of arriving at conclusions, and 2) actual contribution of new knowledge to the pool of human knowledge. Unless the study meets this requirement, the study is not significant, and this could imply that the student fails even in the first.
Definition of Terms and Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework of the study is stated here. This is the place to present 1) the assumption of the study, that is, proposition regarded are true and therefore not requiring proof in the proposed research, and 2) the definition of key terms.
It is usual that scholars or researchers work within the framework of a discipline, which have generally accepted principles or law which need simply to be assumed as true, and within whose framework the researcher performs his reflected thinking. This means placing the proposed study in the context of a specific school of thought in the researcher’s field of study. It may also require statement of ideas already proved satisfactory by other or previous researchers.
When the theoretical framework in the form of assumptions has been completed, key terms, especially those that are used in a particular or unusual sense, are defined. Operational definitions are preferred. Sources of definitions are properly indicated. Definitions not indicated as having been borrowed from sources are assumed to belong to the author of the research plan.
Operational definitions reduce abstract terms (for example, education) to concrete or quantifiable or measurable terms. The term “development”, for example, is defined operationally as “getting people to know, desire, and be capable of doing better things”. Operational definitions are always in a framework of a study.
Methods and Procedure
Methods refer to the set of procedures or steps to be undertaken for discovering knowledge with reference to the time setting of the truth to be known, that is, the past, present, and the future.
Truth of the past is historical. That of the present is described or pictured. And that of the future can be experimented, that is, create a situation whereby an unknown truth can be observed under controlled conditions. Therefore, there are three methods in general use in the scholarly world.
One method may be used, or where necessary, a combination of all three. But the use of these in combination must be done with great care so that it is always clear when each of the methods is being used, especially in the writing of the research report.
In certain disciplines, such as Literature and Philosophy, textual studies are usual. Studies of text are historical because the ordinary aim of this type of study is to arrive at the original intent of the author insofar as this is possible. This involved an attempt to situate words in their historical or biological context, with reference to their import at the time and place the document was written.
In the research plan, it is sufficient to indicate which method is proposed to be used.
Procedures are sub-items under methods. They are steps in logical or chronological sequence which are seen as an organized system of steps toward the discovery of truth, which involve 1) analyzing, 2) classifying, 3) comparing, 4) narrating, and 5) making conclusions regarding what causes produced what effects. One should not confuse method with the steps in a method.
After the procedures have been presented, a proposed outline of the expected report (for example, thesis, dissertation, and term paper) is presented. This outline shows clearly the proposed titles and subsections under each title. Parts or chapters are presented in their expected final sequence which indicate how the successive parts lead to the findings and conclusion.
Bibliography
This is a systematic listing of all available references in libraries, archives, collections, and in other sources. Exhaustiveness is ideal. Although last in the research plan, it is the first to be done in the order of procedure and time. This is because before anyone can formulate a title or problem for the research plan, one has to know whether there are available sources, or whether there already exist and completed studies covering the same area and problem. The way to discover the sources is to look for them wherever they may be an make a listing of these sources.
Final Note: Sometimes, a research plan or proposal may be presented for evaluation in order to secure funding. When this is the case, two things must be added to the foregoing parts: 1) a timetable indicating the schedule of research activities and the time each step in the research is expected to be completed, and 2) a statement of expenses properly itemized to indicate which amount is for which activity, and for which logistics (that is, tools, equipment, instruments, postage, and the like) and related expenses, such as salaries and publication expenses. It is important to note that the budget is not only itemized but also justified.
