Category: Practical Research 1

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How to Write the Background of the Study in Research (Part 1)

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Background of the Study in Research:
Definition and the Core Elements it Contains

Before we embark on a detailed discussion on how to write the background of the study of your proposed research or thesis, it is important to first discuss its meaning and the core elements that it should contain. This is obviously because understanding the nature of the background of the study in research and knowing exactly what to include in it allow us to have both greater control and clear direction of the writing process.

So, what really is the background of the study and what are the core elements that it should contain?

The background of the study, which usually forms the first section of the introduction to a research paper or thesis, provides the overview of the study. In other words, it is that section of the research paper or thesis that establishes the context of the study. Its main function is to explain why the proposed research is important and essential to understanding the main aspects of the study.

The background of the study, therefore, is the section of the research paper or thesis that identifies the problem or gap of the study that needs to addressed and justifies the need for conducting the study. It also articulates the main goal of the study and the thesis statement, that is, the main claim or argument of the paper.

Given this brief understanding of the background of the study, we can anticipate what readers or thesis committee members expect from it. As we can see, the background of the study should contain the following major points:

1) brief discussion on what is known about the topic under investigation;
2) An articulation of the research gap or problem that needs to be addressed;
3) What the researcher would like to do or aim to achieve in the study (research goal);
4) The thesis statement, that is, the main argument or contention of the paper (which also serves as the reason why the researcher would want to pursue the study);
5) The major significance or contribution of the study to a particular discipline; and
6) Depending on the nature of the study, an articulation of the hypothesis of the study.

Thus, when writing the background of the study, you should plan and structure it based on the major points just mentioned. With this, you will have a clear picture of the flow of the tasks that need to be completed in writing this section of your research or thesis proposal.

Now, how do you go about writing the background of the study in your proposed research or thesis?

The next lessons will address this question.

How to Write the Opening Paragraphs of the Background of the Study?

To begin with, let us assume that you already have conducted a preliminary research on your chosen topic, that is, you already have read a lot of literature and gathered relevant information for writing the background of your study. Let us also assume that you already have identified the gap of your proposed research and have already developed the research questions and thesis statement. If you have not yet identified the gap in your proposed research, you might as well go back to our lesson on how to identify a research gap.

So, we will just put together everything that you have researched into a background of the study (assuming, again, that you already have the necessary information). But in this lesson, let’s just focus on writing the opening paragraphs.

It is important to note at this point that there are different styles of writing the background of the study. Hence, what I will be sharing with you here is not just “the” only way of writing the background of the study. As a matter of fact, there is no “one-size-fits-all” style of writing this part of the research or thesis. At the end of the day, you are free to develop your own. However, whatever style it would be, it always starts with a plan which structures the writing process into stages or steps. The steps that I will share with below are just some of the most effective ways of writing the background of the study in research.

So, let’s begin.

It is always a good idea to begin the background of your study by giving an overview of your research topic. This may include providing a definition of the key concepts of your research or highlighting the main developments of the research topic.

Let us suppose that the topic of your study is the “lived experiences of students with mathematical anxiety”.

Here, you may start the background of your study with a discussion on the meaning, nature, and dynamics of the term “mathematical anxiety”. The reason for this is too obvious: “mathematical anxiety” is a highly technical term that is specific to mathematics. Hence, this term is not readily understandable to non-specialists in this field.

So, you may write the opening paragraph of your background of the study with this:

“Mathematical anxiety refers to the individual’s unpleasant emotional mood responses when confronted with a mathematical situation.”

Since you do not invent the definition of the term “mathematical anxiety”, then you need to provide a citation to the source of the material from which you are quoting. For example, you may now say:

“Mathematical anxiety refers to the individual’s unpleasant emotional mood responses when confronted with a mathematical situation (Eliot, 2020).”

And then you may proceed with the discussion on the nature and dynamics of the term “mathematical anxiety”. You may say:

“Lou (2019) specifically identifies some of the manifestations of this type of anxiety, which include, but not limited to, depression, helplessness, nervousness and fearfulness in doing mathematical and numerical tasks.”

After explaining to your readers the meaning, nature, and dynamics (as well as some historical development if you wish to) of the term “mathematical anxiety”, you may now proceed to showing the problem or gap of the study. As you may already know, the research gap is the problem that needs to be addressed in the study. This is important because no research activity is possible without the research gap.

Let us suppose that your research problem or gap is: “Mathematical anxiety can negatively affect not just the academic achievement of the students but also their future career plans and total well-being. Also, there are no known studies that deal with the mathematical anxiety of junior high school students in New Zealand.” With this, you may say:

“If left unchecked, as Shapiro (2019) claims, this problem will expand and create a total avoidance pattern on the part of the students, which can be expressed most visibly in the form of cutting classes and habitual absenteeism. As we can see, this will negatively affect the performance of students in mathematics. In fact, the study conducted by Luttenberger and Wimmer (2018) revealed that the outcomes of mathematical anxiety do not only negatively affect the students’ performance in math-related situations but also their future career as professionals. Without a doubt, therefore, mathematical anxiety is a recurring problem for many individuals which will negatively affect the academic success and future career of the student.”

Now that you already have both explained the meaning, nature, and dynamics of the term “mathematical anxiety” and articulated the gap of your proposed research, you may now state the main goal of your study. You may say:

“Hence, it is precisely in this context that the researcher aims to determine the lived experiences of those students with mathematical anxiety. In particular, this proposed thesis aims to determine the lived experiences of the junior high school students in New Zealand and identify the factors that caused them to become disinterested in mathematics.”

Please note that you should not end the first paragraph of your background of the study with the articulation of the research goal. You also need to articulate the “thesis statement”, which usually comes after the research goal. As is well known, the thesis statement is the statement of your argument or contention in the study. It is more of a personal argument or claim of the researcher, which specifically highlights the possible contribution of the study. For example, you may say:

“The researcher argues that there is a need to determine the lived experiences of these students with mathematical anxiety because knowing and understanding the difficulties and challenges that they have encountered will put the researcher in the best position to offer some alternatives to the problem. Indeed, it is only when we have performed some kind of a ‘diagnosis’ that we can offer practicable solutions to the problem. And in the case of the junior high school students in New Zealand who are having mathematical anxiety, determining their lived experiences as well as identifying the factors that caused them to become disinterested in mathematics are the very first steps in addressing the problem.”

If we combine the bits and pieces that we have written above, we can now come up with the opening paragraphs of your background of the study, which reads:

As we can see, we can find in the first paragraph 5 essential elements that must be articulated in the background of the study, namely:

1) A brief discussion on what is known about the topic under investigation;
2) An articulation of the research gap or problem that needs to be addressed;
3) What the researcher would like to do or aim to achieve in the study (research goal);
4) The thesis statement, that is, the main argument or claim of the paper; and
5) The major significance or contribution of the study to a particular discipline. So, that’s how you write the opening paragraphs of your background of the study. The next lesson will talk about writing the body of the background of the study.

How to Write the Body of the Background of the Study?

If we liken the background of the study to a sitting cat, then the opening paragraphs that we have completed in the previous lesson would just represent the head of the cat.

This means we still have to write the body (body of the cat) and the conclusion (tail). But how do we write the body of the background of the study? What should be its content?

Truly, this is one of the most difficult challenges that fledgling scholars faced. Because they are inexperienced researchers and didn’t know what to do next, they just wrote whatever they wished to write. Fortunately, this is relatively easy if they know the technique.

One of the best ways to write the body of the background of the study is to attack it from the vantage point of the research gap. If you recall, when we articulated the research gap in the opening paragraphs, we made a bold claim there, that is, there are junior high school students in New Zealand who are experiencing mathematical anxiety. Now, you have to remember that a “statement” remains an assumption until you can provide concrete proofs to it. This is what we call the “epistemological” aspect of research. As we may already know, epistemology is a specific branch of philosophy that deals with the validity of knowledge. And to validate knowledge is to provide concrete proofs to our statements. Hence, the reason why we need to provide proofs to our claim that there are indeed junior high school students in New Zealand who are experiencing mathematical anxiety is the obvious fact that if there are none, then we cannot proceed with our study. We have no one to interview with in the first. In short, we don’t have respondents.

The body of the background of the study, therefore, should be a presentation and articulation of the proofs to our claim that indeed there are junior high school students in New Zealand who are experiencing mathematical anxiety. Please note, however, that this idea is true only if you follow the style of writing the background of the study that I introduced in this course.

So, how do we do this?

One of the best ways to do this is to look for literature on mathematical anxiety among junior high school students in New Zealand and cite them here. However, if there are not enough literature on this topic in New Zealand, then we need to conduct initial interviews with these students or make actual classroom observations and record instances of mathematical anxiety among these students. But it is always a good idea if we combine literature review with interviews and actual observations.

Assuming you already have the data, then you may now proceed with the writing of the body of your background of the study. For example, you may say:

“According to records and based on the researcher’s firsthand experience with students in some junior high schools in New Zealand, indeed, there are students who lost interest in mathematics. For one, while checking the daily attendance and monitoring of the students, it was observed that some of them are not always attending classes in mathematics but are regularly attending the rest of the required subjects.”

After this sentence, you may insert some literature that will support this position. For example, you may say:

“As a matter of fact, this phenomenon is also observed in the work of Estonanto. In his study titled ‘Impact of Math Anxiety on Academic Performance in Pre-Calculus of Senior High School’, Estonanto (2019) found out that, inter alia, students with mathematical anxiety have the tendency to intentionally prioritize other subjects and commit habitual tardiness and absences.”

Then you may proceed saying:

“With this initial knowledge in mind, the researcher conducted initial interviews with some of these students. The researcher learned that one student did not regularly attend his math subject because he believed that he is not good in math and no matter how he listens to the topic he will not learn.”

Then you may say:

“Another student also mentioned that she was influenced by her friends’ perception that mathematics is hard; hence, she avoids the subject. Indeed, these are concrete proofs that there are some junior high school students in New Zealand who have mathematical anxiety. As already hinted, “disinterest” or the loss of interest in mathematics is one of the manifestations of a mathematical anxiety.”

If we combine what we have just written above, then we can have the first two paragraphs of the body of our background of the study. It reads:

“According to records and based on the researcher’s firsthand experience with students in some junior high schools in New Zealand, indeed there are students who lost interest in mathematics. For one, while checking the daily attendance and monitoring of the students, it was observed that some of them are not always attending classes in mathematics but are regularly attending the rest of the required subjects. As a matter of fact, this phenomenon is also observed in the work of Estonanto. In his study titled ‘Impact of Math Anxiety on Academic Performance in Pre-Calculus of Senior High School’, Estonanto (2019) found out that, inter alia, students with mathematical anxiety have the tendency to intentionally prioritize other subjects and commit habitual tardiness and absences.

With this initial knowledge in mind, the researcher conducted initial interviews with some of these students. The researcher learned that one student did not regularly attend his math subject because he believed that he is not good in math and no matter how he listens to the topic he will not learn. Another student also mentioned that she was influenced by her friends’ perception that mathematics is hard; hence, she avoids the subject. Indeed, these are concrete proofs that there are some junior high school students in New Zealand who have mathematical anxiety. As already hinted, “disinterest” or the loss of interest in mathematics is one of the manifestations of a mathematical anxiety.”

And then you need validate this observation by conducting another round of interview and observation in other schools. So, you may continue writing the body of the background of the study with this:

“To validate the information gathered from the initial interviews and observations, the researcher conducted another round of interview and observation with other junior high school students in New Zealand.”

“On the one hand, the researcher found out that during mathematics time some students felt uneasy; in fact, they showed a feeling of being tensed or anxious while working with numbers and mathematical problems. Some were even afraid to seat in front, while some students at the back were secretly playing with their mobile phones. These students also show remarkable apprehension during board works like trembling hands, nervous laughter, and the like.”

Then provide some literature that will support your position. You may say:

“As Finlayson (2017) corroborates, emotional symptoms of mathematical anxiety involve feeling of helplessness, lack of confidence, and being nervous for being put on the spot. It must be noted that these occasionally extreme emotional reactions are not triggered by provocative procedures. As a matter of fact, there are no personally sensitive questions or intentional manipulations of stress. The teacher simply asked a very simple question, like identifying the parts of a circle. Certainly, this observation also conforms with the study of Ashcraft (2016) when he mentions that students with mathematical anxiety show a negative attitude towards math and hold self-perceptions about their mathematical abilities.”

And then you proceed:

“On the other hand, when the class had their other subjects, the students show a feeling of excitement. They even hurried to seat in front and attentively participating in the class discussion without hesitation and without the feeling of being tensed or anxious. For sure, this is another concrete proof that there are junior high school students in New Zealand who have mathematical anxiety.”

To further prove the point that there indeed junior high school students in New Zealand who have mathematical anxiety, you may solicit observations from other math teachers. For instance, you may say:

“The researcher further verified if the problem is also happening in other sections and whether other mathematics teachers experienced the same observation that the researcher had. This validation or verification is important in establishing credibility of the claim (Buchbinder, 2016) and ensuring reliability and validity of the assertion (Morse et al., 2002). In this regard, the researcher attempted to open up the issue of math anxiety during the Departmentalized Learning Action Cell (LAC), a group discussion of educators per quarter, with the objective of ‘Teaching Strategies to Develop Critical Thinking of the Students’. During the session, one teacher corroborates the researcher’s observation that there are indeed junior high school students in New Zealand who have mathematical anxiety. The teacher pointed out that truly there were students who showed no extra effort in mathematics class in addition to the fact that some students really avoided the subject. In addition, another math teacher expressed her frustrations about these students who have mathematical anxiety. She quipped: “How can a teacher develop the critical thinking skills or ability of the students if in the first place these students show avoidance and disinterest in the subject?’.”

Again, if we combine what we have just written above, then we can now have the remaining parts of the body of the background of the study. It reads:

So, that’s how we write the body of the background of the study in research. Of course, you may add any relevant points which you think might amplify your content. What is important at this point is that you now have a clear idea of how to write the body of the background of the study.

How to Write the Concluding Part of the Background of the Study?

Since we have already completed the body of our background of the study in the previous lesson, we may now write the concluding paragraph (the tail of the cat). This is important because one of the rules of thumb in writing is that we always put a close to what we have started.

It is important to note that the conclusion of the background of the study is just a rehashing of the research gap and main goal of the study stated in the introductory paragraph, but framed differently. The purpose of this is just to emphasize, after presenting the justifications, what the study aims to attain and why it wants to do it. The conclusion, therefore, will look just like this:

“Given the above discussion, it is evident that there are indeed junior high school students in New Zealand who are experiencing mathematical anxiety. And as we can see, mathematical anxiety can negatively affect not just the academic achievement of the students but also their future career plans and total well-being. Again, it is for this reason that the researcher attempts to determine the lived experiences of those junior high school students in New Zealand who are experiencing a mathematical anxiety.”

If we combine all that we have written from the very beginning, the entire background of the study would now read:

If we analyze the background of the study that we have just completed, we can observe that in addition to the important elements that it should contain, it has also addressed other important elements that readers or thesis committee members expect from it.

On the one hand, it provides the researcher with a clear direction in the conduct of the study. As we can see, the background of the study that we have just completed enables us to move in the right direction with a strong focus as it has set clear goals and the reasons why we want to do it. Indeed, we now exactly know what to do next and how to write the rest of the research paper or thesis.

On the other hand, most researchers start their research with scattered ideas and usually get stuck with how to proceed further. But with a well-written background of the study, just as the one above, we have decluttered and organized our thoughts. We have also become aware of what have and have not been done in our area of study, as well as what we can significantly contribute in the already existing body of knowledge in this area of study.

Please note, however, as I already mentioned previously, that the model that I have just presented is only one of the many models available in textbooks and other sources. You are, of course, free to choose your own style of writing the background of the study. You may also consult your thesis supervisor for some guidance on how to attack the writing of your background of the study.

Lastly, and as you may already know, universities around the world have their own thesis formats. Hence, you should follow your university’s rules on the format and style in writing your research or thesis. What is important is that with the lessons that you learned in this course, you can now easily write the introductory part of your thesis, such as the background of the study.

How to Write the Background of the Study in Research

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What is Research Design?

Research design refers to the overall plan and strategy for conducting a research study. It outlines the specific methods and procedures that will be used to collect and analyze data, as well as the rationale behind these choices. Research design is an essential component of the research process, as it ensures that the study is conducted in a systematic and rigorous manner, and that the findings are reliable and valid.

There are several key characteristics of research design that are essential for any study to be considered well-designed and rigorous. These include:

Clarity of research question: The research question should be clear and well-defined, and should provide a clear direction for the study. The research question should be specific enough to guide the selection of appropriate research methods and procedures, and should be relevant to the research field.

1. Appropriateness of research methods: The research methods used should be appropriate for the research question and objectives, and should be selected based on the strengths and weaknesses of each method. The methods chosen should be capable of producing reliable and valid data that can be used to answer the research question.

2. Sampling design: The sampling design should be appropriate for the research question and objectives, and should be representative of the population being studied. The sample size should be large enough to ensure statistical power, and should be selected using appropriate sampling techniques.

3. Data collection procedures: The data collection procedures should be appropriate for the research question and objectives, and should be designed to minimize bias and maximize accuracy. The procedures should be standardized to ensure consistency across participants and data collectors.

4. Data analysis procedures: The data analysis procedures should be appropriate for the research question and objectives, and should be designed to answer the research question. The procedures should be rigorous and transparent, and should be able to withstand scrutiny from other researchers.

5. Ethical considerations: The research design should take into account ethical considerations, including informed consent, privacy, and confidentiality. The study should be designed to minimize any potential harm or discomfort to participants, and should adhere to relevant ethical guidelines and regulations.

There are several different types of research design, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. Some of the most common types of research design include:

1. Experimental design: This type of research design involves manipulating one or more variables to determine their effect on an outcome. Experimental designs are often used to test causal hypotheses, and are characterized by random assignment of participants to conditions.

2. Quasi-experimental design: This type of research design is similar to experimental design, but does not involve random assignment of participants to conditions. Quasi-experimental designs are often used when random assignment is not possible, such as when studying naturally occurring groups.

3. Correlational design: This type of research design involves measuring the degree of association between two or more variables. Correlational designs are often used to examine relationships between variables that cannot be manipulated.

4. Survey design: This type of research design involves collecting data through questionnaires or interviews. Survey designs are often used to collect large amounts of data from a representative sample of the population.

5. Case study design: This type of research design involves studying a single individual or group in depth. Case studies are often used to gain insight into complex phenomena, and are characterized by detailed data collection and analysis.

Overall, research design is a critical component of the research process, and should be carefully considered and planned in order to ensure that the study is conducted in a rigorous and systematic manner. By choosing appropriate research methods and procedures, and designing the study to minimize bias and maximize accuracy, researchers can produce reliable and valid findings that contribute to our understanding of the world.

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What is Research Methodology?

One of the common mistakes fledgling researchers commit is collapsing the terms “research method” and “research methodology” together. In other words, some scholars confused research method with research methodology. Of course, the two are not the same, and understanding their difference is of paramount importance in research as it does not only show that we, as researchers, have a strong grasp of the basics in research but it also helps us come up with a proper research design.

On the one hand, a research method is the logic of how a scholar arrives at a valid and reliable knowledge. In other words, a research method is the strategy employed in the collection of data or evidence for analysis to uncover new information or arrive at a better understanding of a particular topic. So, a research method is the tool used in carrying out the research. For example, a researcher may employ a qualitative research method in determining the lived experiences of Libyan nurses assigned during wartime.

Research methodology, on the other hand, is the justification for using a particular research method. In other words, a research methodology is the “plan” that explains why, as in the example above, a qualitative research method is employed in determining the lived experiences of Libyan nurses assigned during wartime.

The research methodology, therefore, is the theoretical positioning of the research, while research method is the “doing” of the research itself. The former, therefore, is viewed as the body of knowledge which attempts to explain or understand how a research is done, while the latter refers to the specific process or steps that the researcher may follow in undertaking the study.

Let us use the simple analogy of “constructing a building” to explain the difference between these two terms. Research methodology is the “construction plan” itself, while research method is the “actual” construction of the building, which includes the tools and other materials needed for the construction of the building. This explains why in the actual thesis or thesis proposal, a chapter on data gathering process is commonly titled “Research Methodology” as it contains the entire plan in collecting and analyzing data, while the body of this chapter contains the specificity of the research method, such as using interviews or surveys in data gathering.

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What is Research Method?

In this article, we will discuss the meaning, characteristics, and types of research methods.

Meaning of Research Method:

Research method is the systematic and scientific approach used to conduct research. It is a set of procedures used to collect and analyze data in order to generate new knowledge or to answer specific research questions. The research method involves the following steps:

1. Defining the research problem: This is the first step in the research method. It involves identifying a problem that needs to be investigated or a question that needs to be answered.

2. Formulating the research question: This step involves developing a research question or hypothesis that will guide the research.

3. Designing the research study: This step involves deciding on the research design, data collection methods, and analysis techniques.

4. Collecting data: This step involves gathering data using the selected data collection methods.

5. Analyzing data: This step involves using statistical analysis or other techniques to analyze the data.

6. Drawing conclusions: This step involves interpreting the data and drawing conclusions based on the findings.

Characteristics of Research Method:

1. Systematic: Research method involves a systematic approach to data collection and analysis. The researcher follows a set of procedures that are designed to ensure that the data collected is valid and reliable.

2. Objective: Research method is an objective process. The researcher attempts to collect data that is unbiased and free from personal opinion or bias.

3. Empirical: Research method is an empirical process. It is based on observations and data that can be measured and analyzed.

4. Replicable: Research method is a replicable process. Other researchers should be able to replicate the study using the same procedures and methods.

5. Quantifiable: Research method involves the collection of data that can be quantified and analyzed using statistical methods.

6. Logical: Research method involves the use of logical reasoning and analysis to draw conclusions based on the data collected.

Types of Research Method:

There are two main types of research methods: qualitative research and quantitative research.

Qualitative research: Qualitative research is a research method that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as interviews, observations, and case studies. The goal of qualitative research is to understand the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals.

Qualitative research is typically used in fields such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, and education. Qualitative research involves the following characteristics:

1. Focuses on the subjective experiences of individuals.

2. Collects non-numerical data such as interviews, observations, and case studies.

3. Uses qualitative analysis techniques to analyze the data.

4. Does not use statistical analysis.

5. Seeks to understand complex phenomena in a holistic way.

Quantitative research: Quantitative research is a research method that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data. The goal of quantitative research is to test hypotheses and to draw conclusions based on statistical analysis.

Quantitative research is typically used in fields such as medicine, economics, and psychology. Quantitative research involves the following characteristics:

1. Focuses on numerical data.

2. Collects data using standardized procedures.

3. Uses statistical analysis techniques to analyze the data.

4. Seeks to generalize findings to a larger population.

5. Tests hypotheses using statistical methods.

In conclusion, research method is a crucial tool for generating new knowledge and answering research questions in a systematic and scientific manner. It involves a series of steps, including defining the research problem, formulating the research question, designing the research study, collecting data, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. Research method is characterized by its systematic, objective, empirical, replicable, quantifiable, and logical approach to data collection and analysis. These characteristics ensure that the research is valid, reliable, and free from personal bias or opinion. There are two main types of research methods: qualitative research and quantitative research. Qualitative research focuses on understanding the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. Quantitative research, on the other hand, focuses on testing hypotheses and drawing conclusions based on statistical analysis of numerical data. Ultimately, the use of research method allows researchers to gather and analyze data in a rigorous and structured manner, leading to the production of new knowledge that can be used to inform decisions and policies in various fields.

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What is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research is an approach to research that focuses on understanding the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals and groups. It is a method of inquiry that is used in many different fields, including sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research is concerned with exploring and interpreting the meanings that people attach to their experiences and behaviors.

The main aim of qualitative research is to gain a deep understanding of the social or cultural phenomenon under investigation, and to do so in a way that is sensitive to the unique perspectives of those involved. This often involves collecting data through a variety of methods, including interviews, focus group discussions, observations, and document analysis.

One of the key features of qualitative research is its emphasis on the researcher’s role in the research process. Qualitative researchers acknowledge that their own biases and perspectives can influence the data they collect and the analysis they conduct. As such, they strive to be reflexive and transparent about their own positionality, and to engage in ongoing critical reflection throughout the research process.

Another important feature of qualitative research is its flexibility. Qualitative researchers are open to adjusting their research questions, methods, and analysis as they gather new information and insights. This allows them to be responsive to the unique features of the research context, and to develop a rich and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation.

Qualitative research often involves collecting data through in-depth interviews with participants. These interviews are typically semi-structured, meaning that the researcher has a set of broad questions to guide the conversation, but is also able to follow up on interesting or unexpected responses. The goal of these interviews is to gather detailed information about the participant’s experiences, perspectives, and behaviors, and to do so in a way that allows them to share their views in their own words.

Another common method used in qualitative research is participant observation. This involves the researcher immersing themselves in the social or cultural context being studied, and observing the behavior and interactions of the people involved. This approach allows the researcher to gain an insider’s perspective on the phenomenon under investigation, and to observe how people interact with each other and their environment in real time.

Focus groups are another method often used in qualitative research. Focus groups involve bringing together a small group of participants to discuss a specific topic or issue. The researcher typically acts as a facilitator, guiding the conversation and encouraging participants to share their thoughts and opinions. This approach can be useful for exploring group dynamics and social norms, and for identifying common themes and perspectives across a group of people.

Document analysis is another method commonly used in qualitative research. This involves analyzing documents such as texts, images, or videos to gain insights into the social or cultural phenomenon under investigation. This approach can be particularly useful for studying historical or archival materials, or for analyzing media representations of a particular issue.

Once data has been collected, qualitative researchers engage in a process of analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data. This often involves a process of coding, where the researcher systematically identifies and categorizes different types of data based on their meaning or significance. These codes are then grouped together into broader themes or categories, which are used to develop a deeper understanding of the phenomenon under investigation.

One of the strengths of qualitative research is its ability to generate rich and detailed descriptions of social and cultural phenomena. By focusing on the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals and groups, qualitative research can provide insights into the complexity and nuance of human behavior and social interactions.

However, one of the criticisms of qualitative research is that it can be difficult to generalize findings to larger populations. Because qualitative research typically involves small samples and in-depth analysis of specific contexts, it can be difficult to draw broader conclusions about the social or cultural phenomenon being studied.

In conclusion, qualitative research is an important approach to research that allows for a deep and nuanced understanding of social and cultural phenomena. By focusing on the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals and groups, qualitative research can reveal insights that would be missed by other methods.

One of the key strengths of qualitative research is its flexibility. Qualitative researchers are open to adjusting their research questions, methods, and analysis as they gather new information and insights, allowing them to be responsive to the unique features of the research context.

Another strength of qualitative research is its emphasis on the researcher’s role in the research process. Qualitative researchers acknowledge that their own biases and perspectives can influence the data they collect and the analysis they conduct, and strive to be reflexive and transparent about their positionality.

Despite its many strengths, qualitative research does have some limitations. It can be difficult to generalize findings to larger populations, and the in-depth analysis of specific contexts may not be applicable to other settings.

Overall, qualitative research is a valuable approach to research that provides a rich and detailed understanding of social and cultural phenomena. When used in conjunction with other methods, it can provide a more complete picture of the complex and multifaceted nature of human behavior and interactions.

Types of Qualitative Research Method or Design

Some of the common types of qualitative research methods or designs are the following: 

1) historical research design, 

2) archival research design, 

3) oral history research design, 

4) ethnolinguistic research design, 

5) case study, 

6) process documentation research design, 

7) ethnographic research design, and 

8) naturalistic research design.

Let me briefly discuss the meaning, nature and dynamics of these types of qualitative research designs.

Historical Research Design

Recent trends in historical research in education include seeing education as broader than schooling, viewing school systems in the context of social and economic development, and studying the history of elite intentions and actions. Historical research methods in education make possible the making of broader generalizations about the past, of judgments about its relation to the present, and of predictions about the future.

Examples of historical studies in education include the examination of length of schooling among different social groups by calculating the school-entry and school-leaving ages of different students in sample years, patterns of school attendance, years of schooling, and school expenditures, the different experiences of different social groups, and the impact of schooling on later life in different historical periods.

There is also a need for historical research on popular attitudes, quality of educational experience in the past, and intellectual and institutional history of education.

Archival Research Design

Primary sources of information concerning Philippine history are found in different archives in the Philippines and abroad. Archival research enables a historian to uncover ever new reinterpretations of historical reality.

Oral History Research Design

This is a form of historical activity, a first-hand reminiscence of historical events through the intervention of the historian. It records, for posterity, intimate primary knowledge and experience of individuals prominent in various fields, or those in positions of authority about certain topics, institutions, or about their own lives. This type of research method involves tape recording interview, transcribing them into typescripts, and checking for accuracy by the interviewer and the interviewee.

Ethnolinguistic Research Design

This is a research method which use language in the study of human groups. It deals with description of an ethnic group using linguistic tool. It is a tool for studying changes in meanings, beliefs, values, and codes, that is, the collective conscious and unconscious mind of a human group. According to some scholars, ethnolinguistic research method suggests studies to infer something about the culture and the life of the early ethnic group based on the memoirs of the early ethnographers and the grammar, observations, doctrines, and accounts of apostolic work by the early missionaries.

Case Study Research Design

A case study is a thick description of the interpretation, explanation, understanding, and prediction of an individual, group, or phenomenon obtained through in-depth investigation of the focus of interest.

Types of Case Study

  1. Ethnographic case study which involves single in-depth study, usually through participant observation and interview.
  2. Action research case study which focuses on bringing about change in the case under study.
  3. Evaluative case study which involves the evaluation of programs.
  4. Educational case study which is designed to enhance understanding of education actions.

Process Documentation Research

This is a useful tool for evolving a program based on a new intervention strategy. An example of this research method is the intervention strategy employed by the National Irrigation Agency (government agency in-charge of developing and assisting national and communal irrigation systems in the Philippines) whereby farmers got involved in the planning, design, and construction of their communal irrigation system. This resulted in the development or strengthening of the skills and structures of farmers’ association for system operations and maintenance.

Ethnographic Research Design

This research method is grounded on anthropology. Data are gathered through unstructured interviews, participant observation, and field notes. Other sources of data include the use of documents, records, photography, maps, genealogies, and social network diagrams. Research questions in ethnographic research method are descriptive in nature. This includes questions on values, beliefs, and practices of a cultural group.

Ethnographic research method involves describing and interpreting events that occur within the life of a group, with special attention to social structures and behaviors of individuals with respect to group membership. They are particularly appropriate for empirical research on a school, classroom, family, social organizations, or ethnic communities.

Naturalistic Research Design

Naturalistic inquiry is a more general term for ethnography, sociological field methods, case study methods, participant observation, ecological psychology, and psychodynamic social psychology. It involves extensive study of a case (for example, a group, institutions, communities, programs, and social systems) over an extended period of time. Points of interest here include not only the case itself, but also the ecology, context, or milieu in which it exists. And the researcher exposes herself directly with the case and is solely responsible for gathering and interpreting data.

Unlike experimental studies, naturalistic inquiry does not introduce any intervention, but instead studies the natural occurrence of events where they are found. Furthermore, the meaning of the constructs or ideas to be studied is not arbitrarily fixed or operationalized in advance of data collection. Instead, the researcher attempts to elicit the multiple meanings about those ideas that are upheld by each person. Similarly, hypotheses are neither derived from theory nor stated in advance. Rather, explanations about the relationships among variables come from the data rather than from preexisting theories.

Data collection in naturalistic inquiry typically centers on in-depth, open-ended interviews, direct observations, examination of documents, and community studies. Quantitative data are not avoided. During data collection, copious notes are kept, including verbatim accounts of what was observed and the responses of the interviewees. Interpretation and analysis of data are done as soon as data collection began.

It is important to note that the report of the naturalistic inquiry does not rely on statistics, graphs, or abstract models, but on the language familiar to the reader and the images that evoke readers’ association. What are important here are the precise use of language, rich description, and clear presentation of ideas to produce vicarious experiences for readers who could not be there themselves.

Criteria in doing Naturalistic Research

Scholars listed eight criteria that should be observed in naturalistic research, namely: 

1) duration, 

2) scope, 

3) ethics, 

4) logic, 

5) verification, 

6) stance of the researcher, 

7) writing, and 

8) contribution to knowledge

The researcher should be in direct contact with the case sufficiently enough to become thoroughly familiar with all its aspects and context (duration). The case study should be studies extensively (scope). The researcher should maintain the confidentiality and protection of the site and the informants (ethics). There should be an internal logical fit between the data in the data record and the ideas or analysis that purports to come from them (verification). The researcher should maintain dispassionate distance from the case, or at least clearly identify their prejudices (stance of the researcher). The report should have been written effectively and provide a pleasing piece of writing (writing). Lastly, it should contribute to knowledge regarding psychological and social ideas that the information yields (contribution to knowledge).

Limitations of Naturalistic Inquiry

Scholars listed some limitations of the naturalistic inquiry. For one, naturalistic inquiry is labor intensive because it requires prolonged exposure to the case. The researcher’s biases or prejudices may also influence the outcome of the study. Furthermore, a researcher with a low level of energy or intellectual ability might miss subtle but significant patterns of behaviors or events. And lastly, establishing causality and generalizing results are not possible with this research.

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Research Plan: Definition and How to Prepare It

The research plan, which is also called “research proposal” before acceptance by competent authority, is a scholarly paper. As is well-known, it must conform to accepted conventions of academic and scientific procedure. It is expected to show evidence of intelligent grasp of the problem being proposed for solution, and fields related to it. It must also present appropriate and valid method and procedure for the solution of the problem.

Allowing for certain variations due to preferences of scholars, disciplines, and institutions, a research plan generally contains the following:

1) The title of the personal study,

2) Statement of the problem,

3) Review of related literature, and

4) Scope and limitation of the study,

5) Importance or significance of the study,

6) Definition of terms, and theoretical framework,

7) Methods and procedure,

8) Bibliography.

The Title

The title of the research plan should be brief but descriptive and comprehensive. The title should also be an adequate index to the key contents of the following: 1) the statement of the problem, 2) the method(s) used, and 3) the expected or hypothetical conclusion(s).

Although it is the first to appear on the research plan, it can remain tentative until the problem and methodology have been clearly formulated. (See also W. C. Campbell & S. V. Ballou, Form and Style: Theses, Reports, Term Papers, 4th ed., Boston, USA: Houghton Miffin, 1974, p. 15).

The Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem is the part of the research plan, which contains two parts, namely: 1) a careful exposition of an area involving significant problems, and how such problems affect knowledge in the given discipline, and 2) a clear and concise statement of the problem. The first is an essay that demonstrates the researcher’s intelligent and broad grasp of the key problem currently confronting her discipline. The second is a clear statement of the question(s) to be answered or hypothesis to be tested.

The statement of the problem in experimental research is usually in the form of a hypothesis or a series of related hypotheses which call for proof or disproof. Other types of research require that the problem be stated categorically in the form of a question or series of related questions. In case a question needs further specification by means of sub-questions, care is to be taken that the sub-questions are all comprehended by the primary question. Multiple questions and questions which add new problems not expressed or implied in the primary question must be avoided. (See Campbell & Ballou, p. 18).

It must be remembered that the statement of the problem is not the same with the statement of the purpose of the study. The first is the question to be answered, while the second is the reason for answering the question.

A good statement of the problem must be consistent with the title and the methods and procedure to be used in the research.

Review of Related Literature

It is assumed that before the researcher starts making the research plan, she has read many important works related to the proposed study. The aims of the review of related literature are:

1) to show that the researcher is familiar with key ideas in his field of study;

2) to show that the knowledge in the field is incomplete, unreliable, or both; and

3) to show that the findings of the proposed study will: a) add to, b) supplement, 

         and/or c) correct present knowledge.

The tone and tenor of the review of related literature are both expository and evaluative or critical.

The materials subject to review under this heading are both published and unpublished materials containing anything that have some pertinence to the proposed subject of study. These include books, periodicals, documents, theses, dissertations, and all papers that are conventionally regarded among scholars as disciplinary literature. This explains why it is redundant to say “literature and studies” because the term “literature” includes all studies, which are on record and reported.

Scope and Limitation of the Study

The scope of the study refers to the 

1) specific source(s) of information, and 

2) time involved in the study. 

Since the scope of the study directly affect the validity of the conclusion derived from it, it may be assumed that a study that has no specifically defined scope and limitation of sources and time cannot lead to a definite and valid generalization and/or conclusion.

The limitation of the study refers to shortcoming or source of weakness of the study. The honest researcher must admit the weakness or limitation of any aspect of her investigation or her tools of investigation, and source of information. This fundamental rule is required by intellectual honesty. For example, using translation as reference due to one’s lack of proficiency in the original language of the source is a limitation of the investigator. Limitations that are so great as to cause doubt concerning the validity or conclusion of the study invalidate a research plan.

Significance of the Study

The significance of the study is generally of two kinds, namely, 1) the significance of the expected findings of the study to the specific discipline to which the study belongs, and 2) the benefit that human world may derive from the findings. Evidence of significance on the first level is generally sufficient. Significance of the second level if not discreetly put tends to be pretentious and violates the modesty generally expected of scholars. It is, therefore, generally best to convince the reader that the answer(s) one is trying to discover are important mainly to one’s line of study, and leave the “earth-shaking” value of the study understated or implied.

Research on the graduate school level is expected to show evidence of 1) mastery of scientific and rational methods of arriving at conclusions, and 2) actual contribution of new knowledge to the pool of human knowledge. Unless the study meets this requirement, the study is not significant, and this could imply that the student fails even in the first.

Definition of Terms and Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework of the study is stated here. This is the place to present 1) the assumption of the study, that is, proposition regarded are true and therefore not requiring proof in the proposed research, and 2) the definition of key terms.

It is usual that scholars or researchers work within the framework of a discipline, which have generally accepted principles or law which need simply to be assumed as true, and within whose framework the researcher performs his reflected thinking. This means placing the proposed study in the context of a specific school of thought in the researcher’s field of study. It may also require statement of ideas already proved satisfactory by other or previous researchers.

When the theoretical framework in the form of assumptions has been completed, key terms, especially those that are used in a particular or unusual sense, are defined. Operational definitions are preferred. Sources of definitions are properly indicated. Definitions not indicated as having been borrowed from sources are assumed to belong to the author of the research plan.

Operational definitions reduce abstract terms (for example, education) to concrete or quantifiable or measurable terms. The term “development”, for example, is defined operationally as “getting people to know, desire, and be capable of doing better things”. Operational definitions are always in a framework of a study.

Methods and Procedure

Methods refer to the set of procedures or steps to be undertaken for discovering knowledge with reference to the time setting of the truth to be known, that is, the past, present, and the future.

Truth of the past is historical. That of the present is described or pictured. And that of the future can be experimented, that is, create a situation whereby an unknown truth can be observed under controlled conditions. Therefore, there are three methods in general use in the scholarly world.

One method may be used, or where necessary, a combination of all three. But the use of these in combination must be done with great care so that it is always clear when each of the methods is being used, especially in the writing of the research report.

In certain disciplines, such as Literature and Philosophy, textual studies are usual. Studies of text are historical because the ordinary aim of this type of study is to arrive at the original intent of the author insofar as this is possible. This involved an attempt to situate words in their historical or biological context, with reference to their import at the time and place the document was written.

In the research plan, it is sufficient to indicate which method is proposed to be used.

Procedures are sub-items under methods. They are steps in logical or chronological sequence which are seen as an organized system of steps toward the discovery of truth, which involve 1) analyzing, 2) classifying, 3) comparing, 4) narrating, and 5) making conclusions regarding what causes produced what effects. One should not confuse method with the steps in a method.

After the procedures have been presented, a proposed outline of the expected report (for example, thesis, dissertation, and term paper) is presented. This outline shows clearly the proposed titles and subsections under each title. Parts or chapters are presented in their expected final sequence which indicate how the successive parts lead to the findings and conclusion.

Bibliography

This is a systematic listing of all available references in libraries, archives, collections, and in other sources. Exhaustiveness is ideal. Although last in the research plan, it is the first to be done in the order of procedure and time. This is because before anyone can formulate a title or problem for the research plan, one has to know whether there are available sources, or whether there already exist and completed studies covering the same area and problem. The way to discover the sources is to look for them wherever they may be an make a listing of these sources.

Final Note: Sometimes, a research plan or proposal may be presented for evaluation in order to secure funding. When this is the case, two things must be added to the foregoing parts: 1) a timetable indicating the schedule of research activities and the time each step in the research is expected to be completed, and 2) a statement of expenses properly itemized to indicate which amount is for which activity, and for which logistics (that is, tools, equipment, instruments, postage, and the like) and related expenses, such as salaries and publication expenses. It is important to note that the budget is not only itemized but also justified.

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